From Colonies to Independence

French and Indian War (1754-1763)

  • Part of the larger Seven Years' War.
  • Sparked by territorial disputes between British colonists and the French, especially in the Ohio River Valley.

Causes

  • British colonists felt threatened by French encroachment.
  • The French felt threatened by British encroachment.

Early Stages

  • The British initially struggled.
  • The British government convened a congress of representatives from several colonies.
Albany Plan of Union
  • Proposed by Benjamin Franklin.
  • Called for a more centralized colonial government for better defense coordination.
  • Rejected due to colonial reluctance to be taxed.
  • Significance: Served as a precursor to future Revolutionary Congresses.

Outcome

  • The British won and signed the Peace of Paris in 1763.
Results of the Peace Treaty
  • The French were almost entirely removed from North America.
  • The Louisiana Territory was ceded to Spain.
  • British land holdings in North America more than doubled, gaining all land east of the Mississippi River.

Consequences of the War

Westward Expansion and Conflict with American Indians
  • Colonists sought land in the Ohio River Valley, leading to increased tensions with American Indians.
  • Pontiac, an Ottawa leader, led raids against encroaching colonists.
  • Colonists were unsympathetic to American Indian grievances.
Royal Proclamation of 1763
  • Issued by the British government to ease tensions between colonists and American Indians.
  • Forbade colonists from settling west of the Appalachian Mountains, in the Ohio River Valley.
  • Frustrated colonists who felt entitled to the land after fighting in the war.
British Debt and Taxation
  • The war significantly increased British debt.
  • The cost of running the colonies increased fivefold.
  • The British Parliament turned to taxing the colonies.
End of Salutary Neglect
  • Britain shifted from salutary neglect to stricter control and enforcement of laws.
New Acts and Enforcement
  • Stricter enforcement of the Navigation Acts, restricting colonial trade.
  • Quartering Act of 1765: Required colonists to house and feed British soldiers.
  • Sugar Act: Imposed taxes on coffee, wine, and other luxury items. Also enforced an existing tax on molasses.
  • Stamp Act of 1765: Taxed all paper items, including newspapers, playing cards, and contracts. This was especially burdensome due to declining wages and rising unemployment.
Debate Over Representation
  • Colonists argued that taxation without representation was unjust.
  • British leaders argued for virtual representation, claiming that members of Parliament represented all British citizens, regardless of locality.
  • Colonists rejected virtual representation, preferring localized representation.
Colonial Resistance
  • Groups like the Sons of Liberty and Daughters of Liberty emerged to advocate for the repeal of the Stamp Act.
  • The Stamp Act Congress convened with delegates from nine colonies.
  • The Congress sent a formal petition to Parliament to repeal the Stamp Act, arguing that taxation without representation was tyranny.
  • Colonists saw themselves as loyal British citizens who were being denied their rights.
Salutary Neglect
  • The British policy of loosely enforcing parliamentary laws in the American colonies.

Repeal and Declaratory Act

  • Parliament repealed the Stamp Act and the Sugar Act in response to colonial protests, property destruction, and threats to tax collectors.
  • Parliament passed the Declaratory Act, asserting their right to pass any law they wished in the colonies.
  • The Declaratory Act was largely ignored by the colonists.

Townsend Acts & Colonial Protests

  • In 1767, the British Parliament passed the Townsend Acts, imposing new taxes on goods imported to the colonies, including paper, glass, and tea.
  • This sparked organized protests involving various levels of colonial society, not just the elite.
  • Colonists boycotted British goods, with women playing a key role by:
    • Spinning their own cloth instead of buying British textiles.
    • Brewing herbal tea instead of drinking imported tea.

Boston Massacre (1770)

  • Tensions between colonists and British troops escalated, leading to the Boston Massacre in 1770.
  • British troops stationed in the colonies were harassed by a group of colonists in Boston who insulted them and threw snowballs and stones.
  • Shots were fired (the cause remains unclear), resulting in eleven colonists wounded and four dead.
  • Six out of eight soldiers were acquitted at trial.
  • The event was perceived by colonists as a sign of increasing British tyranny.

Boston Tea Party (1773)

  • The Boston Tea Party was a direct response to the Tea Act of 1773, which granted the British East India Company exclusive rights to sell and ship tea to the colonies.
  • Colonists, accustomed to dealing in smuggled Dutch tea, were angered by this monopoly.
  • In December 1773, about 50 colonists disguised as American Indians boarded a merchant ship and dumped approximately 45 tons of British tea into Boston Harbor.
  • In retaliation, Parliament passed the Coercive Acts, also known as the Intolerable Acts by the colonists. These acts included:
    • Closing Boston Harbor until the tea was paid for.
    • Approving a new quartering act.
  • News of these acts spread, leading colonists, especially those identifying as patriots, to organize armed groups for protection against British tyranny.

Continental Congress (1774)

  • Colonial leaders gathered in the Continental Congress of 1774 to address the violations of their liberties by Parliament.
  • While differing on the best course of action, they agreed on the need to resist further British encroachment.
  • The colonists, at this stage, still sought to remain British subjects, and independence was not yet the primary goal.
  • Enlightenment thought significantly influenced the colonists' ideas, including:
    • Natural Rights:
      • Rights endowed to all human beings by God, not a government, and therefore cannot be taken away.
    • Social Contract:
      • The power to govern resides in the people, who willingly give some of that power to a government capable of protecting their natural rights. If the government tramples upon these rights, the people have a duty to overthrow it.
    • Republicanism:
      • The superiority of a republican form of government, especially one with a separation of powers allowing each branch to check and balance the others.

Declaration of Independence (1776)

  • By 1776, the Second Continental Congress convened, even as fighting began.
  • They concluded that independence from Britain was the only path forward.
  • Thomas Paine's pamphlet, \"Common Sense,\" published in early 1776, argued persuasively for independence using biblical allusions and Enlightenment principles.
  • It swayed public opinion, convincing a majority of colonists that independence was necessary.
  • The Second Continental Congress tasked Thomas Jefferson with drafting the Declaration of Independence.
  • The document is deeply rooted in Enlightenment thought.
  • The Declaration was adopted by the Congress on July 2nd, 1776, and made public on July 4th, 1776, marking the beginning of the Revolutionary War.

The Revolutionary War

  • Not all colonists supported independence. Loyalists wanted to remain loyal to Britain.
  • The Continental Congress established the Continental Army and appointed George Washington as its general.
  • The army was poorly equipped, trained, and paid.

Enlightenment Ideas in the Declaration of Independence

  • Natural Rights: \"We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights, that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.\"
  • Social Contract: \"That to secure these rights, governments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed. That whenever any form of government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the right of the people to alter or abolish it.\"

American Revolution

  • The Americans suffered early defeats against the British, who had one of the world's most powerful militaries.
  • Recognizing the need for foreign support, the Continental Congress sought allies.
  • The American victory at the Battle of Saratoga in 1777 proved to be a turning point, convincing the French to ally with the Americans.
  • Benjamin Franklin's diplomatic efforts in France were crucial to securing this alliance.
  • French support included guns, ships, and military figures like the Marquis de Lafayette.
  • Ultimately, the British lacked the resources to defeat the Americans, and after their defeat at the Battle of Yorktown in 1781, they surrendered.
  • The success of the American Revolution inspired similar revolutions in France and Haiti.

Articles of Confederation

  • After gaining independence, the newly formed nation needed a constitution and a government.
  • The Articles of Confederation provided both.
  • Before, during, and after the Revolution, states had created their own constitutions and governments, largely concentrating power in the legislative branch.
  • When Congress convened to draft the Articles of Confederation, they drew from this model.
  • By 1781, the states had ratified the document, making it the new constitution of the United States.

Key Provisions of the Articles of Confederation

  • All power for the federal government was vested in the legislative body.
  • There was no executive office (president).

Weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation

  • No judicial branch
  • No provision for a national military force
  • The federal government had very limited power to tax. They had to ask the states for revenue, which was not effective.

Northwest Ordinance of 1787

  • Regulated westward migration
  • Provided a plan for how unformed territories could be occupied and then applied to the Union for statehood.
  • Abolished slavery in the Northwest Territory.

Shays' Rebellion

  • Many farmers fell into debt after fighting in the Revolutionary War.
  • Daniel Shays led a militia of farmers to the town arsenal in Massachusetts.
  • The local militia quickly squashed the rebellion.
  • Importance: The rebellion highlighted the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation.

Constitutional Convention of 1787

  • Called to revise the Articles of Confederation, but it became clear that a new constitution was needed.
  • Two factions emerged:
    • Federalists: Urban, commercial background, wanted a stronger central government.
    • Anti-Federalists: Rural, liked states having power, opposed an increase in federal government power.

Representation Debates

  • Virginia Plan: Representation by population (favored by larger states).
  • New Jersey Plan: Equal representation for all states (favored by smaller states).
Great Compromise
  • Bicameral Congress:
    • House of Representatives: Representation by population
    • Senate: Equal votes per state (two votes per state)
Three-Fifths Compromise
  • Issue: How to account for the enslaved population in the South for representation?
  • Compromise: Three-fifths of the enslaved population would be counted for representation purposes.

New Constitution

  • Provided for a more robust central government.
  • Separated the government into three branches to check and balance power:
    • Legislative
    • Executive
    • Judicial

Ratification

  • The new constitution went to the states for ratification.
  • Federalist Papers: Essays written by Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, and James Madison to persuade the public of the Constitution's merits.
  • Anti-Federalists opposed the Constitution because it lacked a Bill of Rights.
  • Federalists agreed to add a Bill of Rights, and the Constitution was ratified in March 1789.

Distinctive American Culture

  • A desire to define a distinct American culture emerged after the Revolution.
  • State and national leaders proposed ambitious plans for public education.
  • Artists like Charles Wilson Peale and Samuel Jennings focused on painting historical themes.

Republican Motherhood

  • Women could influence political realities by raising virtuous, liberty-minded sons.

First Government under the New Constitution

  • George Washington was elected president.
  • John Adams was elected vice president.
  • Washington established the departments of the Treasury, State, War, and Justice.
  • Alexander Hamilton was appointed as the first Secretary of the Treasury.

Hamilton's Policies

  • Plan for the federal government to assume the states' Revolutionary War debts.
  • Consolidating debts would bind the nation together and improve its credit.
  • Creation of a national bank, the Bank of the United States.
Opposition to the Federalists
  • Critics argued the Constitution didn't provide for a bank.
  • Hamilton invoked the Elastic Clause (necessary and proper clause) to justify the bank.
  • The Elastic Clause of the Constitution says that Congress has the right to make any law that is necessary and proper in order to carry out its other responsibilities.
  • Washington and Hamilton were Federalists who favored policies that strengthened the central government.
  • They wanted to remain neutral during the French Revolution of 1789.

Whiskey Rebellion of 1794

  • Hamilton imposed a tax on whiskey, which angered poor frontier farmers.
  • Farmers attacked tax collectors.
  • Washington federalized state militias and crushed the rebellion.

Political Divisions and Washington's Farewell

Federalists vs. Democratic-Republicans

  • The emergence of political parties marked a significant division in early American politics.
    • Federalists:
      • Supported a strong central government.
      • Advocated for policies like the debt plan and the National Bank.
    • Democratic-Republicans:
      • Favored limited federal power.
      • Considered the debt plan, National Bank, and response to the Whiskey Rebellion as federal overreach.
      • Key figures included Thomas Jefferson and James Madison.

Washington's Farewell Address

  • After serving two terms, George Washington chose not to run for a third, offering crucial advice in his farewell address.
  • He warned against:
    • The divisive effects of political parties.
    • Entanglement in foreign alliances, particularly with European powers.

The Adams Presidency and the Alien and Sedition Acts

The XYZ Affair

  • During John Adams' presidency, war erupted between Britain and France.
  • America remained neutral, but French ships seized American trade ships bound for Britain.
  • Adams sent a delegation to France to negotiate.
  • French officials, known as X, Y, and Z, demanded a bribe before negotiations could begin.
  • This incident, known as the XYZ Affair, sparked outrage among both Federalists and Democratic-Republicans.

Alien and Sedition Acts

  • Fearing dissent, Adams and the Federalist-dominated Congress passed the Alien and Sedition Acts:
    • Alien Acts: Made it easier to deport non-citizens, targeting Irish and Scottish immigrants who opposed Federalist pro-British sentiments.
    • Sedition Acts: Made it illegal to publicly criticize the government.

Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions

  • In response to the Alien and Sedition Acts, the Democratic-Republicans drafted the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions:
    • These resolutions asserted that states could nullify federal laws deemed unconstitutional.
  • John Adams was not re-elected in 1800, and Thomas Jefferson became the next president.

US Relations with Britain, Spain, and American Indians

Concerns over Sovereignty

  • Political elites, dating back to Washington's administration, worried about the threat posed by Britain, Spain, and American Indians to U.S. political sovereignty.

Indian Trade and Intercourse Act

  • Congress passed the Indian Trade and Intercourse Act to manage relations between settlers and Indians:
    • This law aimed to regulate interactions and ensure fair dealings but was largely ignored by settlers.

Westward Migration and Conflicts

  • As westward migration increased, so did conflicts with American Indians and the British who supported them.

Pinckney Treaty

  • Tensions with Spain on the southern frontier led to the Pinckney Treaty:
    • Established the border between the U.S. and Spain at the 31st parallel.

The Legacy of Slavery

Regional Attitudes

  • Distinct regional attitudes toward slavery emerged as the nation developed.
Expansion of Slavery
  • Slaveholders migrating west brought enslaved people with them, establishing the institution in new territories.
  • This would lead to significant conflict in the coming decades.

Regional Differences

  • Northern States:
    • Rapid growth of free black populations; some states granted voting rights to black property owners; formation of the African Methodist Episcopal Church.
  • Southern States:
    • Predominantly enslaved population that was growing rapidly; increasingly difficult to free slaves.