Ballet and Tap Dance in America and England (1920-1940)

Ballet in America and England ($1920$ - $1940$)

First American Ballet Company

• Founding: Established in San Francisco in $1933$ by Adolf Baum.
• Name: Known as the San Francisco Ballet.
• Current Status: This company remains active and highly regarded today, a testament to its foundational strength and enduring artistic contributions.

English Ballet

• Britain's Royal Ballet: Founded in $1956$.
• Predecessor: It was previously known as Sadler's Wells Ballet, under the leadership of Ninette de Valois.
• Notable Film: The company produced the movie "The Red Shoes" in $1948$, a cinematic work that starkly explored the harsh and often unforgiving realities experienced by ballet dancers.
• Methodology: The Royal Ballet subsequently developed its own unique ballet training methodology, recognized and codified as the Royal Academy.

US Ballet Funding

• Distinction from Other Nations: Unlike countries such as Russia, which historically provided state subsidies to their ballet companies, the United States has never established an official national ballet company that receives direct government funding.

School of American Ballet

• Establishment: Formed in the early $1930s$ by the influential choreographer George Balanchine.
• Funding: It was primarily funded by the wealthy patron Lincoln Kirstein.
• Purpose: Its main objective was to create a rigorous, structured training program specifically designed for aspiring ballet dancers in America.

New York City Ballet

• Formation: This prominent company was formed much later, in $1948$.
• Genesis: Its development largely stemmed from the foundational work and artistic vision established by Balanchine and Kirstein, building upon the rigorous training and aesthetic principles they had already put in place.

Neoclassical Ballet: Definition and Key Figure

• Definition: Neoclassical ballet represents a distinct and innovative ballet style that creatively blends traditional elements of classical ballet with the more expressive and fluid elements characteristic of romantic ballet. This fusion results in a fresh, contemporary presentation of the art form.
• Key Figure: George Balanchine became particularly renowned for his profound contributions to and his masterful command of this innovative ballet style.

Agrippina Vaganova: Classical Ballet and Training

Background

• Pivotal Figure: Vaganova was a towering and pivotal figure in the realm of classical ballet, a movement distinct from the neoclassical style.
• Innovation: She developed a groundbreaking and systematic training methodology in Russia, which profoundly influenced classical ballet technique worldwide.

Education and Career

• Studies: She pursued her ballet education at the prestigious Imperial Valley School, where she studied under the tutelage of Lev Ivanov.
• Graduation: She successfully graduated in $1897$.
• Performance: Following her graduation, she danced professionally with the esteemed Mariinsky Ballet.

Performance Challenges

• Talent Acknowledged: Despite being lauded for her powerful leaps and exceptionally intricate footwork, her performing career often found itself overshadowed by contemporary luminaries such as the legendary Anna Pavlova.
• Retirement: She ultimately retired from performing in $1915$.

Vaganova Technique

• Development: After her retirement from the stage, Vaganova dedicated her remarkable talents to meticulously developing her unique technique.
• Integration: This method seamlessly integrated the established principles and elegance of the Imperial Russian Ballet with the strict discipline and innovative demands of the Soviet Ballet, which emerged post-revolution.
• Emphasis: It placed a profound emphasis on cultivating core strength, ensuring stability throughout the body, and achieving the harmonious integration of the entire physical form, with particular attention paid to the articulate role of the spine and the expressive qualities of the neck.
• Official Recognition: The Vaganova method subsequently became the official and mandated training system for all Russian ballet.

Leadership Role

• Artistic Director: She served as the distinguished Artistic Director for the Mariinsky Ballet from the year $1935$ until her retirement in $1990$.

Literary Contribution

• Foundational Text: Her seminal book, "The Basic Principles of Classical Ballet," first published in $1934$, translated into English in $1946$, and further updated in $1969$, stands as a foundational text in ballet pedagogy.
• Content: This invaluable resource meticulously codifies ballet terminology and offers comprehensive pedagogical suggestions, serving as an indispensable guide for ballet instruction across the globe.

Legacy and Influence

• Accolades: Vaganova received significant and widespread accolades within Russia for her contributions.
• Re-naming: In recognition of her immense impact, the Leningrad Choreographic School was renamed in her honor to the Vaganova School in $1957$.
• Global Reach: Her technique continues to be taught and revered globally, recognized for its exceptionally stringent standards and comprehensive approach to classical ballet training.
• Student Selection: Students are often meticulously handpicked at the tender age of $12$, based on specific criteria including their body shape, inherent flexibility, and precise bodily proportions, as the method is designed to train bodies for highly specialized and demanding movements.
• Contemporary Debate: While the technique remains popular due to its consistent success in producing strong and technically proficient dancers, some aspects of its contemporary application within Russia are debated regarding their strict alignment with Vaganova's original pedagogical intent.

George Balanchine: A Visionary in American Ballet

Early Life & Musicality

• Family Background: Born the son of a professional composer, Balanchine was instilled with an exceptionally strong musical sensibility from an early age.
• Choreographic Foundation: This deep understanding and innate musicality became a foundational and distinguishing element of his unique choreographic style, influencing his approach to rhythm, phrasing, and the structure of movement.

Marriages

• Partnerships: He famously married multiple ballerinas with whom he worked closely, often entering into these unions when the dancers were quite young.
• First Marriage: His first marriage was to Balanchinia in $1922$, when he was $18$ years old and she was only $15$.
• Duration: His marriages generally proved to be short-lived.

Ballets Russes & Les Ballets

• Ballets Russes: He served as both choreographer and ballet master for the renowned Ballets Russes from $1925$ until its eventual dissolution in $1933$.
• Les Ballets: Subsequently, in the same year of $1933$, he formed his own avant-garde group, which he named Les Ballets, through which he created original and highly innovative choreographic works.

Arrival in America

• Kirstein's Persuasion: The wealthy and influential patron Lincoln Kirstein played a crucial role, successfully persuading Balanchine to leave Paris and relocate to America.
• Vision: Kirstein recognized Balanchine's extraordinary potential to establish and forge a wholly new and distinct American ballet aesthetic, a vision that would fundamentally reshape dance in the United States.

American Ballet Company

• Establishment: In $1935$, Balanchine, in partnership with Kirstein, established the American Ballet, which organically grew out of the School of American Ballet they had previously founded.
• Resident Status: From $1936$ to $1938$, this company held the esteemed position of being the official resident ballet company of the Metropolitan Opera House in New York City.

Artistic Philosophy

• Core Understanding: Balanchine possessed a profound and intuitive understanding of design, line, and intricate stage patterns, which he masterfully integrated into his choreographies.
• Musical Preference: He consistently favored contemporary music for his works.
• Stravinsky Collaboration: He maintained a significant and enduring artistic collaboration with the iconic composer Igor Stravinsky, a partnership that notably continued and evolved the rich traditions established during his time with Ballets Russes.

Impact on American Ballet

• Influence: He is widely and unequivocally regarded as the single most influential developer and shaper of ballet in America, profoundly defining its unique character and trajectory.
• "American Frontier Spirit": Balanchine infused ballet with what became known as an "American frontier spirit," characterized by an athletic, dynamic, and bold choreographic style, reflecting a distinct national identity.
• Later Influences: Later in his career, he was deeply influenced by the vibrant energy of jazz, the rich cultural tapestry of African American culture, and the groundbreaking work of artists like Katherine Dunham. He skilfully integrated these cultural flavors and elements into his ballets without ever compromising or altering ballet's fundamental classical essence.

Key Choreographies ($1920$ - $1940$)

• Notable Works: His significant and enduring works from this foundational period include:
  • "Song of a Nightingale"
  • "Apollo" (a particularly famous and influential creation)
  • "The Prodigal Son" (another renowned work, based on the biblical narrative, showcasing his narrative ballet capabilities)
  • "Errante" (likely referring to "Errante Concurrence")
  • "Cotillion"
  • "The Fairy's Kiss"

Broadway Engagement

• Economic Necessity: During the severe economic challenges of the Great Depression, Balanchine also undertook choreography for Broadway musicals.
• Consistent Work: This engagement was primarily motivated by the fact that theatrical and early film productions offered the most consistent and reliable paying work during that economically turbulent era.

Lincoln Kirstein: The Architect of American Ballet Patronage

Patronage Background

• Wealth and Dedication: Lincoln Kirstein was a man of significant wealth, a financier, and a shrewd businessman, but above all, he was a passionate and devoted dance enthusiast.
• Education: Educated at Harvard, Kirstein came from a privileged background, yet he chose to dedicate a substantial portion of his life and resources to the promotion and enrichment of the arts, particularly dance.

Catalyst for Balanchine's American Journey

• Crucial Role: He played an absolutely crucial role in convincing the visionary George Balanchine to relocate permanently to America.
• Vision: Kirstein held a profound belief in the immense potential to establish a unique, impactful, and distinctly American dance tradition in the New World, seeing Balanchine as the key figure to realize this ambition.

Leadership and Founding

• Director of School of American Ballet: He became the esteemed director of the School of American Ballet in $1940$, reinforcing its foundational role.
• Ballet Caravan: Alongside Balanchine, he co-founded and directed Ballet Caravan, an innovative touring company that emerged after the American Ballet company eventually folded.

Post-World War II Contributions

• Artistic Revival: After bravely serving in World War II, Kirstein returned with renewed vigor to establish the Ballet Society in $1946$.
• Pivotal Step: This organization proved to be a pivotal and essential step towards the eventual and highly significant formation of the New York City Ballet by Balanchine and himself, laying the groundwork for one of America's foremost dance institutions.

Ruth Page: Chicago's Dance Innovator

Early Career

• Origins: Hailing from Indiana, Ruth Page began her dancing career at a remarkably young age, demonstrating early talent and dedication.
• Diverse Experience: She had the invaluable opportunity to dance with Anna Pavlova's illustrious company in $1914$ and performed for Adolphe Baum (of the San Francisco Ballet) in $1919$, touring extensively and gaining wide exposure.
• International Exposure: Her extensive experience also included performing with the renowned Ballets Russes and participating in some of Balanchine's early ballets during her formative time in Paris in $1925$, which broadened her artistic horizons.

Establishing a Chicago Legacy

• Return to Chicago: After her marriage in $1925$, she returned to the vibrant cultural scene of Chicago.
• Founding Companies: She subsequently founded the Chicago Opera Ballet, which was later honorably renamed Ruth Page's International Ballet in recognition of her significant contributions.
• School of Dance: In $1970$, she further solidified her legacy by establishing the Ruth Page Foundation School of Dance, ensuring continued training and artistic development.

Choreographic Output

• Prolific Work: Page was an exceptionally prolific choreographer, boasting a repertory of over $100$ original works, showcasing her creativity and artistic drive.
• "The Flattermouse": Notably, her ballet comedy "The Flattermouse" ($1958$) is particularly remembered as a cherished example of her non-classical, story-driven, and often humorous approach to the art of ballet, setting her apart from more traditional choreographers.

Commitment to Dance

• Lifelong Dedication: Her profound and unwavering dedication to dance was powerfully exemplified by her remarkable commitment to taking a daily dance class until the extraordinary age of $87$, a testament to her passion and discipline.

Anthony Tudor: Master of Psychological Ballet

Origins and Early Works

• Birthplace: Anthony Tudor was born in England, where his early dance career began.
• Early Mentorship: He danced for Marie Rambert, an immensely important and influential figure in the development of English dance, who fostered his early talent.
• First Choreography: He choreographed his first original work for Rambert's company in $1931$, marking the beginning of his distinguished choreographic career.

Groundbreaking Choreographies

• "Lilac Garden" ($1936$):
  • Avant-garde Costuming: This ballet was considered avant-garde for its innovative costuming, as dancers notably wore everyday clothes, a radical departure from traditional, elaborate ballet attire and a stark contrast to earlier heavy historical costumes.
• "Dark Elegies" ($1937$):
  • Profound Themes: This work is celebrated as a profound, deeply imaginative, and emotionally resonant ballet, which courageously explored the difficult and universal themes of grief and the agonizing loss of a child.
  • Emotional Depth: It is particularly noted for its exquisite emotional depth and its portrayal of painful beauty, making a significant impact on emotional expression in ballet.

Companies and Influence

• London Ballet: He founded the London Ballet in $1938$, although he departed from the company after just one year.
• American Ballet Theatre (ABT): Tudor subsequently served as a highly influential director and choreographer for the American Ballet Theatre (ABT) for a significant period of ten years.
• Jazz Influence: His later involvement with a tap school is indicative of the growing influence and cross-pollination of jazz music and its accompanying dance forms on more formal and classical dance during this dynamic era of artistic exchange.

Tap Dance: The Roaring Twenties and Beyond

The Roaring Twenties

• Dominant Art Form: This period witnessed the explosive emergence of tap dancing as a preeminent and dominant art form, which, with its vibrant energy and captivating rhythms, overshadowed many other established dance styles of the time.

Broadway's Influence

• Crucial Role: Broadway played an absolutely crucial role in both popularizing and legitimizing tap dancing.
• "Shuffle Along" ($1921$):
  • Pioneering Black Production: This was an all-Black production that achieved unprecedented success not only in African American theaters but also found substantial acclaim in mainstream white theaters.
  • Opening Doors: Its success significantly paved the way and created new opportunities for Black performers within the broader landscape of American musical theater.
• "No, No, Nanette" ($1925$):
  • Tap Milestone: This musical marked a significant milestone as the very first Broadway production to prominently feature and integrate tap dancing as a central and essential element of its theatrical presentation.

Impact of "Talkies"

• Revolutionary Change: The advent of sound films, famously known as "talkies," in $1928$ brought about a revolutionary transformation in the perception and appeal of tap dancing.
• Auditory Experience: It allowed audiences to finally hear the intricate rhythms, percussive sounds, and complex nuances of tap dancers, dramatically enhancing their appeal and immersion.
• Rise of Flash Acts: This enhanced auditory dimension led directly to the proliferation and rise of highly athletic and visually spectacular "flash acts," although, disappointingly, these innovative performers often went uncredited for their original and groundbreaking choreography.

Jazz Phenomenon

• Post-WWI Music: The meteoric rise of jazz music, particularly after the conclusion of World War I, brought with it a powerful and pervasive emphasis on syncopation and improvisational rhythms.
• Dance Proliferation: This musical shift directly led to the widespread proliferation of swing dancing and the energetic Lindy Hop.
• Tap Stars: Tap dancers, with their innate ability to interpret and embody these complex jazz rhythms through their footwork, naturally ascended to the status of major stars during this musically vibrant period.

Tap Styles and Popular Vernacular Dances

Buck and Wing

• Early Style: An early and foundational tap style, characterized by a unique blend of soft shoe and clogging influences.
• Rhythmic Quality: It crucially incorporated syncopation and was danced primarily on the balls of the feet, offering a distinct rhythmic quality that differentiated it from later full-foot tap styles.
• Current Status: While it enjoyed popularity for a period, it is rarely seen or performed in its original form today.

Shim Sham / Shim Sham Shimmy

• Iconic Sequence: This is an iconic and universally recognized tap dance sequence, widely regarded as a fundamental "tap anthem" within the tap community.
• Fundamental Routine: It represents a fundamental and essential routine that virtually every tap dancer is expected to know and master.
• Collective Finale: The Shim Sham often serves as a traditional and unifying collective finale in tap shows, with various improvisational elements allowing for communal participation.

Cakewalk

• Enduring Popularity: This dance, which had originated in earlier historical periods, continued to enjoy significant popularity and exposure throughout this era, showcasing its timeless appeal.

Charleston

• Highly Energetic: The Charleston was a highly energetic, exceptionally influential, and immensely popular social dance.
• Introduction to White Audiences: It gained widespread popularity and acceptance among white audiences through its prominent feature in the musical revue "Running Wild" in $1923$, which brought it into the mainstream.
• Origins: The dance is deeply rooted in a Black folk dance originating from Charleston, South Carolina, with its characteristic movements tracing back to, and drawing inspiration from, West African dance traditions.
• Characteristics: It is typically performed on the toes with distinctive twisting footwork, and involves dynamic front-and-back steps. It offered versatility, as it could be danced solo, with a partner, or in lively groups. Modern interpretations of the Charleston are often considered tamer and less dynamic than the original, more uninhibited versions.
• Enduring Legacy: The Charleston forms a foundational basis for numerous subsequent dance styles, with identifiable elements and influences clearly found in later forms such as hip-hop, jazz dance, and even country line dancing, demonstrating its lasting impact.

Lindy Hop

• Dynamic Swing Dance: The Lindy Hop is a dynamic, acrobatic, and highly athletic swing dance.
• Origins: It emerged and was born in the vibrant dance halls of Harlem in $1928$, representing a creative fusion of various African American dance forms and rich cultural traditions.
• Popularity during the Depression: It became exceptionally popular during the challenging economic times of the $1930s$ and early $1940s$, notably being a featured attraction in dance marathons, which, for many, offered a means of earning money during the Great Depression.
• Nomenclature: The name "Lindy Hop" is famously associated with Charles Lindbergh's historic transatlantic flight in $1927$, evoking a sense of aerial movement, adventurous daring, and dynamic flight in its execution.
• Key Figures: Frankie Manning was a renowned and pivotal figure instrumental in both popularizing and further developing the complex and energetic vocabulary of the Lindy Hop.

Vernacular Dances

• Definition: This term refers to culturally significant and deeply ingrained dances that genuinely originate among the general populace. These dances are characterized by a symbiotic relationship, both absorbing influences from and simultaneously exerting influence on stage performances, theatrical productions, and broader public tastes and trends in dance.

Ziegfeld Follies: Grand Spectacle on Stage

Evolution

• Grand Review Shows: The Ziegfeld Follies evolved over time into increasingly grander and more elaborate review shows. These productions frequently drew inspiration from more risqué and extravagant French productions, which were then artfully toned down and adapted for the specific sensibilities of American audiences.

Artistic Vision

• Artistic Blend: These lavish productions skillfully blended various forms of art, including distinct elements of Art Nouveau in their design and aesthetics.
• Lavish Spectacles: They often resembled the monumental and lavish spectacles that became synonymous with iconic venues such as Radio City Music Hall and Rockefeller Center, known for their grandeur and visual extravagance.

Performers

• Showgirls and Stars: The Follies prominently showcased elaborate and famously glamorous showgirls, and notably served as a launchpad for the careers of many famous performers who would go on to achieve significant stardom.

Demise

• Economic Reality: The unparalleled opulence and grandeur that defined the Ziegfeld Follies ultimately proved unsustainable and tragically fell victim to the harsh economic realities and widespread financial hardship of the Great Depression.

The Harlem Renaissance: A Cultural Explosion

Epicenter

• Location: This profoundly significant cultural period flourished vibrantly in Harlem, which then stood as a distinct and thriving African American section geographically located within New York City's Upper East Side.

Key Venues

• Cultural Hubs: Iconic establishments such as the Cotton Club, the Apollo Ballroom, and the legendary Savoy Ballroom became absolutely central to Harlem's vibrant music and dance scene, serving as focal points for artistic expression and social gathering.

African American Artistic Haven

• Hub of Talent: Harlem became a vital and indispensable hub where many of the era's greatest Black performers, including the celebrated Josephine Baker, the incomparable Bill "Bojangles" Robinson, and numerous jazz musicians and dancers, found both a welcoming home and a prominent stage to showcase and refine their extraordinary talents.
• Popularity: These venues were so incredibly popular and drew such immense crowds that people often resorted to ingenious methods, even trying to sneak in, just to witness the captivating performances.

The Savoy Ballroom

• Opening: The Savoy Ballroom opened its doors in $1912$ in the heart of Harlem.
• Financial Endeavor: It was a unique joint financial endeavor between a Jewish businessman and a Black businessman, symbolizing early cross-racial collaboration.
• Staff: It employed approximately $90$ permanent staff members, a diverse group that included talented musicians, engaging hostesses (whom dancers could pay to dance with for a fee), diligent bouncers, and attentive attendants, ensuring a lively and orderly environment.
• Dynamic Space: While not strictly a theater in the traditional sense, the Savoy was a profoundly dynamic and energetic space where live music fueled spontaneous public dancing and famously launched numerous dance fads, including the shimmy, mambo, Lindy Hop, jitterbug jive, flying Charleston, and snake hips.
• Legendary Performers: It hosted a pantheon of legendary jazz figures, such as Duke Ellington, Dizzy Gillespie, Charlie Parker, Chick Webb, Benny Goodman, and the renowned dancer Frankie Manning, cementing its status as a jazz and dance mecca.
• Closure: The Savoy Ballroom closed its doors in $1958$, leaving behind an indelible legacy as a premier place in Harlem to see, be seen, and, most importantly, dance with unparalleled joy and freedom.

A "New Negro Movement"

• Broader Context: The Harlem Renaissance was a significant and illuminating facet of a broader cultural and intellectual phenomenon known as the "New Negro Movement," which dynamically emerged in the $1920s$.
• Fuelled by Great Migration: This movement was primarily fuelled by the transformative Great Migration, during which large Black populations moved from the oppressive Jim Crow South to the more promising (though still challenging) urban centers of the North and West.
• Artistic Blossom: The movement blossomed into an extraordinary and vibrant display of Black writing, visual art, and music, showcasing a rich and diverse cultural output.

Art as Advocacy

• Civil Rights Vehicle: For a new generation of African Americans, often two generations removed from the direct experience of slavery, the arts became an incredibly powerful and articulate vehicle to advocate for their burgeoning civil and political rights.
• Challenging Narratives: Artists explicitly sought to prove the intrinsic "artistic worth of the people" and actively challenged prevailing historical narratives and stereotypes that had persistently denied Black people their rich cultural heritage, their profound history, and their enduring achievements.

Atmosphere of Creativity

• Vibrant Scene: The era in Harlem was profoundly characterized by an open, uninhibited, and incredibly vibrant cultural scene, where music literally spilled from the bustling clubs into the lively streets.
• Inspiration: As vividly recounted, residents would often sit on fire escapes during the warm summer evenings, observing the captivating shadows of dancers in windows (such as those of the Savoy) and finding themselves inspired to dance themselves to the infectious sounds of the world's best bands, creating a pervasive atmosphere of spontaneous artistry and communal joy.

Frankie Manning: Lindy Hop Ambassador

Choreographer for Whitey's Lindy Hoppers

• Role: Manning was the preeminent choreographer for the iconic group known as Whitey's Lindy Hoppers, a troupe famously featured in various movie clips and historical videos, showcasing their spectacular acrobatic style.

Global Performer

• Worldwide Tours: He extensively toured the world, performing alongside renowned jazz musicians, gaining vast international experience and universal acclaim for his contributions to Lindy Hop.

Tony Award Winner

• Recognition: His exceptional talent and enduring contributions were formally recognized with a prestigious Tony Award in $1989$ for his outstanding choreographic work in the acclaimed Broadway show "Black and Blue."
• Longevity: This award highlighted the impressive longevity of his career, as he was $75$ years old at the time, still actively contributing to dance.

Historical Consultant

• Film Contribution: He was consulted for the influential movie "Malcolm X" in $1992$, providing invaluable historical insights from his rich lived experience during the era depicted in the film.

Preserving Legacy

• Literary Work: Manning authored a comprehensive book meticulously detailing his extraordinary life and the intricate history of the Lindy Hop, ensuring its story was accurately told.
• Shim Sham Shimmy: He is also notably credited with preserving and popularizing the "Shim Sham Shimmy," an iconic tap dance anthem that is considered a must-know routine for all tap dancers and is frequently used to conclude tap shows, with variations allowing for joyous communal participation.

John Bubbles: Pioneer of Jazz Tap

Early Career

• Birthplace: Born in Indianapolis, John Bubbles showed early promise.
• Performing Group: He formed a professional performing group called "Buck and Bubbles" at the remarkable age of $10$, performing on the Vaudeville circuit until $1922$, gaining crucial stage experience.

Broadway Achievement

• Historical Role: He made significant Broadway history with his memorable role in the groundbreaking production of "Porgy and Bess" in $1935$, marking a major career milestone.

Innovations in Tap

• Groundbreaking Steps: Bubbles introduced a host of groundbreaking and physically challenging tap steps, such as the innovative "double over the top" (a complex maneuver involving leaping over one leg and then the other in quick succession), a feat previously unseen in tap dance.
• Jazz Tap Sub-style: He also created a wholly new and influential sub-style of tap dance, which he aptly named "jazz tap," a style that profoundly influenced subsequent generations of tap dancers.
• Rhythmic Complexity: A key and revolutionary innovation was his visionary use of the heels of his feet, in addition to the traditional use of just the toes. This allowed for the creation of more syncopated, faster, and exponentially complex rhythms by uniquely utilizing multiple parts of the foot, dramatically expanding tap's percussive vocabulary.

Extensive Performance Career

• Prestigious Venues: His illustrious career spanned numerous prestigious venues, including the iconic Apollo Theater, the famed Cotton Club, and the celebrated London Palladium, showcasing his international appeal.
• Barrier Breaker: He was notably the first Black performer to grace the stage of Radio City Music Hall, breaking an important racial barrier. He also performed prominently in movies.
• Service: He famously volunteered to entertain U.S. troops serving in Vietnam alongside the legendary Bob Hope, bringing a much-needed taste of home and entertainment to those in active service.

Busby Berkeley: Master of Choreographic Cinematography

Role

• Groundbreaking Pioneer: Busby Berkeley was a truly groundbreaking and visionary choreographer who also excelled as a videographer, fundamentally altering how dance was presented on screen.

Signature Style

• Elaborate Numbers: He was renowned for conceptualizing and creating incredibly elaborate, sweeping, and often kaleidoscope-like dance numbers, frequently featuring hundreds of dancers moving in intricate synchronization amidst grand and complex sets.

Cinematic Illusions

• Innovative Filming: His truly innovative use of cinematography, most notably his distinctive filming from overhead angles, allowed him to create stunning visual illusions and breathtaking spectacles that were previously unimaginable.
• Geometric Patterns: He masterfully transformed dancers into mesmerizing geometric patterns, such as conceptualizing them as a giant "typewriter," where close-up views would reveal individual dancers each contributing to the creation of a larger, impressionistic, and awe-inspiring pictorial image.

Bill "Bojangles" Robinson: Tap Legend, Barrier Breaker, and Paradox

National Recognition

• Significance: His immense and enduring importance to the art of tap dance is powerfully underscored by the fact that his birthday has been officially designated as National Tap Dance Day in the United States.

Fighting Racial Barriers

• Trailblazer: Robinson was a true trailblazer in actively combating the pervasive racial prejudice of his era, using his platform to challenge norms.
• Refusal of Blackface: He famously and bravely refused to perform in blackface, making him one of the very first prominent performers to take such a principled stand, a move that went against industry expectations.
• Image of Dignity: He meticulously projected an image of elegance, professionalism, and dignity by consistently wearing tailored suits, thereby consciously defying stereotypical and often degrading depictions of Black performers that were prevalent at the time.

Stardom and Respect

• Superstar Status: He achieved unequivocal superstar status, earning a substantial income for his era, which was rare for an African American performer.
• Highly Respected: He became highly respected and widely sought after for his unparalleled talent and professional demeanor.

Iconic Stair Dance

• Signature Contribution: Robinson's most enduring and signature contribution to dance was the innovative "Stair Dance," which he first introduced in $1918$.
• Performance Context: This iconic routine was often performed solo, showcasing his individual brilliance, and famously with the child star Shirley Temple, creating memorable on-screen magic.
• Distinguishing Features: This dance was distinguished by its captivating showmanship and the varied pitches, tones, and rhythms that he expertly produced by each precise step on the stairs, transforming a simple architectural feature into a musical instrument.

Late Film Career

• Vaudeville Star: Although he was already an established superstar from his extensive career in Vaudeville, his highly anticipated film debut did not occur until $1935$.
• Shirley Temple Partnership: He subsequently formed a celebrated and immensely popular partnership with the beloved child star Shirley Temple.
• Antidote to Depression: Their movie collaborations, especially their enchanting staircase duets, notably served as an "antidote to the Great Depression," offering widespread hope, joy, and escapism to millions of Americans during challenging times, while simultaneously breaking down significant racial barriers onscreen and fostering a genuine cross-racial friendship.

Early Life and Nickname

• Birth: Born Luther Robinson in Richmond, Virginia, in $1880$.
• Orphaned and Self-Sufficient: Orphaned at a young age, he supported himself through various means, including shining shoes, occasional petty theft, and dancing for tips in the streets and clubs.
• Nickname Origin: His famous stage nickname "Bojangles" was derived from the word "Jangler," which meant contentious or quarrelsome, reflecting a certain aspect of his personality.
• "Everything's Composetic": He is widely credited with inventing the memorable phrase "everything's composetic," which meant everything was perfectly tip-top or in order.

Professional Debut and Vaudeville Era

• First Job: His very first professional job as a performer was in $1892$, launching his long career.
• "Buck and Bubbles": For a period of $12$ years, starting in $1902$, he was part of the duo "Buck and Bubbles" with George W. Cooper.
• "Two-colored Rule": They were notably bound by the restrictive "two-colored rule," which regrettably limited Black performers to appearing only in pairs in Vaudeville shows.
• Without Blackface: Significantly, they notably performed without the use of blackface makeup, a courageous stand given the prevailing theatrical norms of the time.

Solo Career and WWI Service

• Partnership End: After an assault charge brought an end to his partnership in $1915$, Robinson bravely launched a groundbreaking solo career, an unusual and challenging path for an African American performer.
• Palace Theater: He became one of the very few African Americans to successfully headline New York's prestigious Palace Theater, a major achievement.
• Military Service: He also honorably served his country as a rifleman and drum major in World War I.

Performance Style and Innovation

• Masterful Fusion: Robinson's act was a masterful fusion of various tap steps, brought to perfection through relentless rehearsal and delivered with his irresistibly "infectious personality" and radiant, ever-present smile.
• Incorporated Remarks: He famously incorporated humor, jokes, and characteristic remarks (such as "everything's composetic") directly into his dance routines, enhancing his charismatic stage presence.
• Upright Posture and Light Footwork: His distinctive upright posture, remarkably light and precise footwork, and his innovative use of split clog shoes (ordinary shoes modified with a wooden half-sole and a raised wooden heel, loose in front to allow for greater tonality and sound variation) are credited with bringing tap dance "up on its toes" from an earlier, more flat-footed, and grounded style, revolutionizing its form.
• "Human Percussion": The celebrated writer Langston Hughes famously likened Robinson's rhythmic and intricate tapping to a form of "human percussion," highlighting its musicality and complexity.

Broadway Success

• Vaudeville Decline: As the popularity of Vaudeville began to decline, Robinson's fame continued to surge unabated.
• Starring Roles: He starred in the hit "Blackbirds of $1928$" and in "The Hot Mikado,"
• Critical Acclaim: He was universally hailed by New York newspapers as "the greatest of all dancers."
• "Sleek Modern Black Expression": Critics lauded his extraordinary ability to transform traditional folk rhythms into a "sleek modern black expression," perceiving his performances as almost "symphonic compositions of sounds" that powerfully highlighted a "priceless African heritage."

Hollywood Barrier Breaker

• Significant Move: Robinson's move into Hollywood films was immensely significant, as this domain had previously been largely closed to Black actors, marking a major breakthrough.
• Film Appearances: He notably appeared in "Dixiana," "Hallelujah" ($1929$ – recognized as the first all-Black film of significance), "Stormy Weather," and his much-loved and iconic collaborations with Shirley Temple in films like "The Little Colonel."

Influence and Work Ethic

• Mentorship: He extensively influenced many younger tap dancers who frequented the Hoofers Club in Harlem, sharing his knowledge and inspiring new talent.
• Claimed Teaching: He claimed to have taught the renowned dancers Eleanor Powell, Florence Mills, and even Fred Astaire.
• Workaholic: A relentless workaholic, he often performed an astonishing five shows a day, firmly believing that he danced his absolute best when he was physically exhausted.
• Shoe Consumption: His dedication was such that he wore out an incredible $20$ to $30$ pairs of tap shoes annually through his extensive performances.

Civic Engagement and Philanthropy

• Marriage and Partnership: He married Fanny Clay in $1922$, who became not only his devoted business manager but also a steadfast partner in his ongoing fight against prejudice and racial discrimination.
• Negro Actors Guild: He was a proud founding member of the Negro Actors Guild of America, actively working to support Black performers.
• "Unofficial Mayor of Harlem": He was famously named the unofficial Mayor of Harlem in $1933$, a testament to his community standing and influence.
• Legendary Generosity: Robinson was renowned for his legendary generosity, giving away over $,$1,000,000$in loans and various charities throughout his life, often to those in need.</li> </ul> <h4 id="legacyandcontradictions">Legacy and Contradictions</h4> <ul> <li><strong>Financial State at Death</strong>: Despite his significant earnings during his lifetime, he tragically died in relative poverty in$1949$, largely due to his immense generosity and his unfortunate gambling habits.</li> <li><strong>Widespread Mourning</strong>: His funeral was a monumental event, attended by nearly$100,000$people, and he received heartfelt tributes from around the world, showcasing his global impact.</li> <li><strong>Complex Legacy</strong>: He left behind a complex and multifaceted legacy. He was sometimes criticized for accepting subservient roles in film, which were a product of the racist norms of the time. Yet, in his real life, he actively challenged racial discrimination, used his considerable influence to advance opportunities for African Americans, and served as a powerful symbol of grace and talent in the face of prejudice.</li> </ul> <h3 id="shirleytempleamericaschilddarling">Shirley Temple: America's Child Darling</h3> <h4 id="earlylife">Early Life</h4> <ul> <li><strong>Birth and Death</strong>: Born in$1928$and passed away in$2014$, Shirley Temple quickly became a national sensation and a beloved figure.</li> </ul> <h4 id="childprodigy">Child Prodigy</h4> <ul> <li><strong>Hollywood Debut</strong>: By the remarkable age of six, she had already starred in her first Hollywood film, demonstrating extraordinary precocity.</li> <li><strong>Film Quantity</strong>: By the age of twelve, she had an astonishing$43$movies to her credit, an unparalleled output for a child star.</li> </ul> <h4 id="academyaward">Academy Award</h4> <ul> <li><strong>Special Recognition</strong>: In$1934$, at the tender age of seven, she received a special Academy Award for "best personality" following her enchanting performance of "On a Good Ship Lollipop," highlighting her magnetic appeal.</li> </ul> <h4 id="anantidotetothedepression">An Antidote to the Depression</h4> <ul> <li><strong>Symbol of Hope</strong>: Temple became a powerful symbol of hope, innocence, and joy for millions of Americans during the profoundly challenging and somber years of the Great Depression, offering a much-needed escape and source of comfort.</li> </ul> <h4 id="partnershipwithbojangles">Partnership with Bojangles</h4> <ul> <li><strong>Iconic Collaboration</strong>: Her most iconic and enduring work involved dancing with the legendary Bill "Bojangles" Robinson in multiple films, creating some of cinema's most memorable dance sequences.</li> <li><strong>Barrier Breaking</strong>: Their collaboration not only provided widespread entertainment but also courageously served to break significant racial barriers onscreen, presenting an image of harmony and respect. Crucially, they developed a genuine friendship off-screen, transcending the racial divides of the era.</li> </ul> <h4 id="latercareer">Later Career</h4> <ul> <li><strong>Shift in Public Interest</strong>: As she grew older and transitioned into adolescence, public interest in her acting career naturally shifted, as is often the case with child stars.</li> <li><strong>Public Service</strong>: She made a remarkable and distinguished transition from acting to a highly successful career in public service, becoming a U.S. Ambassador and later serving as the Chief of Protocol, demonstrating her commitment to civic duty.</li> <li><strong>Accolades</strong>: For her significant contributions to the country and her enduring legacy, she received prestigious accolades such as the Kennedy Center Honors and the Screen Actors Guild Lifetime Achievement Award.</li> </ul> <h4 id="culturalicon">Cultural Icon</h4> <ul> <li><strong>Balanchine's Fascination</strong>: George Balanchine famously expressed his fascination with a country that could produce someone like Ginger Rogers, a sentiment that implicitly and equally applied to Shirley Temple's unique and profound cultural impact on America.</li> </ul> <h3 id="thenicholasbrothersflashtappersextraordinaire">The Nicholas Brothers: Flash Tappers Extraordinaire</h3> <h4 id="identity">Identity</h4> <ul> <li><strong>Real-Life Brothers</strong>: Harold and Fayard Nicholas were indeed real-life brothers, with Fayard being about seven years older than Harold.</li> <li><strong>Longevity</strong>: Both brothers remained active and dynamic performers for the majority of their exceptionally long careers, continuing to thrill audiences well into their later years, and both passed away in the early$2000s$.</li> </ul> <h4 id="flashtappers">Flash Tappers</h4> <ul> <li><strong>Pioneering Style</strong>: They are widely recognized as the pioneers of the innovative "flash tapper" style, renowned for its extraordinary combination of acrobatic feats, breathtaking athleticism, and intricate tap dancing moves.</li> <li><strong>Profound Influence</strong>: Their groundbreaking approach and unique style profoundly influenced future generations of dancers, including the emerging b-boy culture, showcasing their lasting impact across different dance genres.</li> </ul> <h4 id="extensiveperformancecareer-1">Extensive Performance Career</h4> <ul> <li><strong>Diverse Venues</strong>: The Nicholas Brothers performed at the legendary Cotton Club, featured prominently in numerous Hollywood movies, and tirelessly toured extensively across South America, Africa, and Europe, establishing their international fame.</li> <li><strong>Modern Cameo</strong>: Their enduring fame and influence even extended to a memorable cameo appearance in a Janet Jackson music video, introducing them to a new generation of fans.</li> </ul> <h4 id="signaturemoves">Signature Moves</h4> <ul> <li><strong>Breathtaking Feats</strong>: Their performances were consistently characterized by a repertoire of breathtaking and seemingly impossible feats, such as leaping over each other in perfect synchronicity and landing effortlessly in full splits. They were also renowned for their incredible agility, dynamic presence, and intricate tap routines while dancing down grand staircases, making each step a percussive marvel.</li> <li><strong>Longevity in Performance</strong>: Remarkably, they continued to perform these dazzling and physically demanding moves well into their eighties, a testament to their incredible talent and enduring vitality.</li> </ul> <h4 id="uncreditedchoreography">Uncredited Choreography</h4> <ul> <li><strong>Historical Injustice</strong>: A significant historical injustice faced by the Nicholas Brothers, and many other Black artists, was the widespread lack of official credit for their own choreography in many film productions, despite creating their own routines.</li> <li><strong>Denial of Recognition</strong>: They were routinely expected to create their own routines and innovative steps but were often denied formal recognition or screen credit for their creative contributions.</li> <li><strong>Systemic Issues</strong>: This practice was rooted, in part, due to the general lack of respect and formal recognition for choreography as a distinct art form at the time, a problem further compounded by the rampant racial discrimination faced by Black American artists in the entertainment industry.</li> </ul> <h3 id="rubykeelerdanceractressandbusbyberkeleymuse">Ruby Keeler: Dancer, Actress, and Busby Berkeley Muse</h3> <h4 id="earlylife-1">Early Life</h4> <ul> <li><strong>Birthplace</strong>: Born in Canada, Ruby Keeler moved to New York at the age of four, where her dance career would begin.</li> </ul> <h4 id="collaborationwithbusbyberkeley">Collaboration with Busby Berkeley</h4> <ul> <li><strong>Frequent Collaborator</strong>: She frequently and famously worked with the visionary Busby Berkeley in his elaborate and visually stunning movie musical numbers.</li> <li><strong>"Typewriter" Routine</strong>: These iconic collaborations included visually striking routines, such as one where dancers appeared to be ingeniously arranged and moving as if they were part of a giant typewriter, beautifully showcasing Berkeley's distinctive "movie magic" and his impressionistic visual style.</li> </ul> <h4 id="earlycareer-2">Early Career</h4> <ul> <li><strong>First Chorus Job</strong>: At the age of$14$, she secured her very first chorus job, dancing in the lively and illicit speakeasies of the Prohibition era.</li> <li><strong>Broadway Debut</strong>: In$1927$, she made her much-anticipated Broadway debut in the production "Bye Bye Bonnie."</li> </ul> <h4 id="marriageandfilmstardom">Marriage and Film Stardom</h4> <ul> <li><strong>Marriage to Al Jolson</strong>: In$1928$, she married the famous singer Al Jolson, notorious for his use of blackface performances, a marriage that undeniably helped to elevate her nascent career and public profile.</li> <li><strong>"42nd Street"</strong>: Her starring role in the hugely successful$1933$movie "42nd Street" indelibly solidified her status as a legitimate and beloved film star, launching her into widespread recognition.</li> </ul> <h4 id="retirementandcomeback">Retirement and Comeback</h4> <ul> <li><strong>Retirement</strong>: Keeler retired from performing and divorced in$1940$, at the relatively young age of$31$, stepping away from the limelight.</li> <li><strong>Remarkable Comeback</strong>: However, she made a remarkable and triumphant comeback in$1971$, at the age of$60$, starring in a hugely successful Broadway revival of "No, No, Nanette," which enjoyed an impressive run of$871$performances, captivating a new generation of audiences.</li> </ul> <h4 id="legacy">Legacy</h4> <ul> <li><strong>Influence</strong>: While she may not have been an innovator who invented new dance styles, Ruby Keeler nonetheless remains an interesting, significant, and cherished figure in the rich history of dance and film during this pivotal era.</li> </ul> <h3 id="fredastairetheepitomeofeleganceandprecision">Fred Astaire: The Epitome of Elegance and Precision</h3> <h4 id="earlycareer-3">Early Career</h4> <ul> <li><strong>Family Partnership</strong>: Astaire began his dancing career with his sister, Adele, in$1906 at the tender age of seven, forming a successful sibling act.