European History Notes: 1450-Present

Fall of Western Roman Empire leads to feudal kingdoms and Catholic Church provides stability.
Crusades revive Greek/Roman texts, leading to humanism (Petrarch) and secularism.
Machiavelli: State survival over religion.
Art shifts from religious to classical themes.
Northern Renaissance: Christian ideals (Erasmus) vs. feared leadership (Machiavelli); realism in art.
Printing press spreads ideas; vernacular language rises.
Centralized states challenge Catholic Church (Henry VIII, Ferdinand/Isabella).
Exploration spurred by astrolabe, lateen sails, compass -> Columbian Exchange.
Mercantilism, triangular trade emerge; cottage industry rises.
Motives: Gold, Glory, God.

Treaty of Tordesillas divides colonization between Spain/Portugal.
Bank of Amsterdam, Dutch East India Co. benefit elites.
Enclosure movement commercializes agriculture, displaces farmers.
Economic power shifts to Atlantic states.
Eastern serfdom codified.
Luther's 95 Theses critique Catholic practices, sparking Protestant Reformation.
Religious pluralism recognized by 1648 Treaty of Westphalia.
Edict of Nantes (later revoked) grants Huguenot freedom.
Catholic Reformation: Council of Trent, Jesuits, Baroque art.
Witchcraft accusations rise; questioning of social norms.

Nobility questions monarchs (Fronde).
English Civil War: Parliament vs. Charles I, Cromwell's rule, Glorious Revolution -> English Bill of Rights.
Dutch Republic established under oligarchy.
Conflicts shift to balance of power.
Poland partitioned; Russia under Peter I westernizes.
Scientific Revolution: Heliocentric model (Copernicus, Galileo), disproven Galen's theory (Harvey, Visalius), inductive/deductive reasoning (Bacon, Descartes), spiritual forces (Kepler, Newton).
Inoculation introduced; population increases due to Agricultural Revolution.
Enlightenment: Natural rights (Locke), absolutism (Hobbes), separation of powers (Montesquieu), freedom of speech (Voltaire), education (Rousseau, Wollestonecraft).
Salons, coffee houses spread ideas; Diderot's Encyclopedia published.
Mercantilism challenged by free trade (Adam Smith).
Deism, atheism rise; religious toleration increases.
Enlightened monarchs: Joseph of Austria, Frederick the Great, Catherine the Great.
Seven Years' War: Britain wins, leading to American Revolution -> French Revolution.
Declaration of the Rights of Man; Reign of Terror (Robespierre).
Saint Domingue (Haiti) gains independence.
Napoleon's rise: Education, civil codes, nationalism -> Congress of Vienna restores balance of power.

Britain industrializes due to resources, waterways, government, colonies.
Textile industry begins; spreads in Europe.
Railroads, steamships emerge during the Second Industrial Revolution.
Industrial Revolution: Long hours, low wages, health issues, infrastructure modernization, labor unions, political parties.
John Stuart Mill advocates individual rights; radicals push for suffrage; feminists emerge; socialists call for redistribution (Marx, Engels); anarchists oppose government.
Romanticism responds to rationalism and industrialization.
Revolutions of 1848 occur.
Prussia leads German unification (Bismarck); Italy unifies due to Garibaldi and Cavour; Austria-Hungary becomes dual monarchy; Zionism (Herzl) emerges.
Crimean War enables German/Italian unification.
Ottoman Empire declines; Russia modernizes after Crimean War loss.
Social Darwinism (Spencer) justifies racial theories.
Imperialism: Europe colonizes Africa (Berlin Conference); Sepoy/Boxer Rebellions occur.
Age of Anxiety: Einstein's relativity, Freud's subconscious; abstract art emerges.

Early 1900s Europe: Military buildup, imperialism, nationalism, alliances -> WWI (Archduke Ferdinand assassination, trench warfare).
Russian Revolution: Military stalemate, Tsar's decisions, Lenin's Bolsheviks (peace, land, bread), USSR established.
League of Nations fails; Treaty of Versailles blames Germany.
Global financial crisis (1929) leads to extremist movements.
Fascist dictatorships emerge (Germany, Italy); Spanish Civil War.
Appeasement by Western powers allows Hitler's aggression.
Authoritarian leaders rise in East (Stalin).
WWII: Hitler invades Poland (1939); Allies defeat Axis (1945); atomic bombs dropped.
Lost Generation: Disillusionment; women's roles transform (Simone de Beauvoir).
Cold War: Capitalism vs. Communism; Marshall Plan, Truman Doctrine, NATO vs. Warsaw Pact, Comecon, GATT.
Destalinization (Krushchev); restrictions in East.
Gorbachev's glasnost/perestroika -> USSR falls (1991); Yugoslavia dissolves; satellite states join EU.
Western Europe adopts social welfare programs.
Decolonization: Peaceful (India) or violent (Algeria); migration to Europe -> anti-immigration policies.
Catholic Church reforms; social groups fight for rights; European Union expands; Green parties emerge.