Notes on Culture and National Identity

During the Cold War era, the influence of culture and national identity on foreign policy was often overlooked.
The constraints of the bipolar rivalry between superpowers overshadowed domestic concerns.
In the post-Cold War era, culture and national identity are seen as crucial influences on foreign policy decisions.
The political socialization of leaders in their national cultures shapes their belief systems significantly.

Political Scientist Samuel Huntington argued that the post-Cold War world would see a "clash of civilizations."
He posited that a Confucian-Islamic axis would oppose the West, citing conflicts in regions like Bosnia and Nigeria as evidence.
Huntington suggested that China's rise represents a challenge to Western dominance, with potential alliances forming between Islamic nations and China.

Foreign Policy Analysis (FPA) strives to incorporate culture into understanding foreign policy, balancing general theories with specific national contexts.
Cultural analysis in international relations has faced challenges, particularly because scholarly work on culture is often found outside of the field (e.g., in anthropology or sociology).
Previous studies of culture in international politics faced criticism, often being treated as explanations of last resort.

Understandings of culture revolve around answers to foundational identity questions: "Who are 'we'?", "What do 'we' do?", and "Who are 'they'?"
Individual beliefs regarding national identity influence perceptions of national actions and the understanding of other nations.
National identity is not static; it evolves through societal discourse, including media, conversations, and public opinion.

Definitions of culture are varied and challenging; include concepts like:
- Herskovits (1955): Culture as the "human-made part of the environment."
- Hofstede (1991): Culture as "the software of the mind."
- Geertz (1973): Culture involves patterns of meaning in symbolic forms.
The vagueness of cultural boundaries complicates categorizing behaviors as cultural differences versus personality traits.

LeVine (1973): Culture as rules guiding communication and behavior.
Kluckhohn (1951): Patterned ways of thinking and feeling transmitted through symbols.
Triandis (1994): Elements aiding survival that become shared via common language.
d'Andrade (1984): Learned systems of meaning helping groups adapt to environments.
Geertz (1973): Historically transmitted symbolic meanings shaping knowledge and attitudes.

Cultural studies aim to understand how cultural characteristics influence the decision-making process of states in foreign policy.
This analysis covers shared meanings, national roles, value preferences, and the impact of social discourse on political actions.

National Role Conception: Leaders communicate a vision tied to their culture's expectations, affecting their approach to international relations (e.g., "defender of the faith", "mediator").
The complexity of cultural interactions and the historical context shape foreign policy decisions:
- For example, differences between countries can lead to varied approaches in negotiations and conflict.

Embrace cultural analysis through comparative, subnational, discourse, horizon, and interaction analyses.
Comparative Analysis: Identifying cultural effects by comparing different cultures or subnational segments.
Discourse Analysis: Investigating the narrative and myths influencing political decisions within distinct cultural contexts.
Recognize the importance of cultural elements in shaping potential foreign policy options and responses to crises, emphasizing their dynamic and instrumental role in international relations.

Greater exploration of religion's role in cultural impacts on foreign policy decisions is necessary.
Researchers should pursue how cultural beliefs are socially formed and their implications for policies, shifting the focus from static cultural characteristics to dynamic, contextual influences.
Conclusion: Culture and identity's influence on foreign policy is pivotal, urging scholars and policymakers to view culture not just as a backdrop but as an active factor shaping international relations.