French Revolution and Napoleonic Era Vocabulary Flashcards

The Formation of the French Republic and Political Factions

Between 1792 and 1795, the new governing body of France was the National Convention. During its tenure, the National Convention drafted France's very first democratic constitution, marking the dawn of a new era for the country. The Convention was split into three primary political factions that held differing views on the direction of the revolution. The Jacobins were radical delegates who believed that the revolution had not gone far enough, with Maximilien Robespierre and Georges Danton serving as prominent leaders within this faction. In contrast, the Girondists believed that the revolution had already gone too far. The third group, known as the Plain, comprised the undecided majority of delegates who sat between the two opposing factions.

The Trial and Execution of King Louis XVI

In November of 1792, an iron box was discovered inside the royal palace. This box contained secret correspondence between King Louis XVI and foreign powers, providing evidence of treason. Following this discovery, radical leaders put Louis XVI on trial. He was found guilty of treason and sentenced to execution. The King was executed using the guillotine, an event that sparked a widespread wave of republican excitement across France.

Foreign Coalitions, Conscription, and the Committee of Public Safety

European monarchs viewed the revolutionary developments in France with horror, fearing that similar anti-monarchical uprisings would spread to their own territories. To halt the revolutionary movement, foreign nations declared war on France. Austria and Prussia were the first to enter into conflict with France. By 1793, Great Britain, Sardinia, the Netherlands, and Spain had also joined the anti-French coalition and declared war.

To coordinate and manage the war effort against these foreign coalitions, France established the Committee of Public Safety. To supply the necessary manpower, the committee instituted conscription, enforcing a military draft. Through this mobilization, the French military successfully overran Sardinia and the Netherlands. Additionally, the expanded military forces were deployed internally to crush domestic revolts within France.

The Reign of Terror

From July 1793 to July 1794, the radical Jacobins initiated a campaign to eliminate political opposition, a period designated as the Reign of Terror. Neighborhood watch committees were set up across the nation to hunt down individuals suspected of opposing the revolution. Those arrested were brought before revolutionary courts, subjected to swift trials, found guilty, and executed by guillotine. Approximately $17000$ people were executed during this year-long period.

Internal disagreements ultimately weakened the Jacobin leadership. In 1794, Georges Danton advocated for halting the widespread killings. Robespierre disagreed with Danton's proposal and ordered Danton to be executed by guillotine. Robespierre subsequently attempted to intensify the executions. Fearing for their own lives, Robespierre's followers turned against him and had Robespierre executed by guillotine. His execution officially brought the Reign of Terror to an end.

The Establishment and Struggles of the Directory

Following the Reign of Terror, France adopted a new constitution. Voting rights were restricted exclusively to citizens who owned property. The executive branch of this new government consisted of a five-man council called the Directory, which ruled alongside a bicameral, or two-house, legislature.

The Directory faced immense governance challenges. Revolutionary factions threatened to overthrow the government, and the populace expressed anger over widespread food shortages. Furthermore, the state was nearly bankrupt. Due to these ongoing crises, French citizens increasingly sought stability and began looking to the military for assistance, creating the conditions for Napoleon Bonaparte to overthrow the government.

Background and Rise of Napoleon Bonaparte

Napoleon Bonaparte was born on the island of Corsica into a minor noble family with modest financial resources. He received formal training for a military career and married Josephine. Early in his military service, Napoleon earned distinction by winning notable victories against British and Austrian forces.

Napoleon played a central role in overthrowing the Directory and establishing a new government called the Consulate. The Consulate functioned as a dictatorship headed by an absolute ruler. In 1802, Napoleon assumed the official title of First Consul. In 1804, he proclaimed himself Emperor and personally crowned himself during his coronation ceremony.

Domestic Reforms and the Napoleonic Code

As leader of France, Napoleon implemented sweeping domestic reforms. He modernized the nation's financial system, created the Bank of France, and regulated the economy. To ensure state revenue, he mandated that every citizen pay taxes. In education, Napoleon established public schools placed directly under state control. He also normalized relations by making peace with the Catholic Church, securing broad political support across social class lines.

Napoleon restructured the legal framework by instituting the Napoleonic Code. While standardizing French law, the code significantly reduced individual rights. It limited freedom of speech and freedom of the press and stripped away key legal rights from women.

Imperial Expansion and Economic Warfare

Napoleon sought to establish a major European empire, successfully annexing substantial territories across continental Europe. However, his attempts to conquer Great Britain were unsuccessful. At the Battle of Trafalgar, British Admiral Lord Nelson defeated the French naval fleet, eliminating the possibility of a French invasion of Great Britain.

In response to his naval defeat, Napoleon turned to economic warfare against Great Britain by establishing the Continental System. He ordered all territories under French conquest to cease commercial trade with Great Britain. Great Britain countered this policy by decreeing that any ship traveling to a continental European port was required to stop at a British port first. Ultimately, the Continental System failed to achieve its economic and strategic objectives.

Growing Resistance and the 1812 Russian Campaign

By 1812, the territorial boundaries of France extended from the border of Spain to the Russian border. Subjects in conquered territories grew increasingly discontented with paying French taxes and serving in the French military, leading to a rise in nationalism across Europe. Spain became the first nation to successfully win back its freedom from French control.

Tensions escalated when the leader of Russia, Tsar Alexander I, formally withdrew Russia from the Continental System and resumed trade relations with Great Britain. Angered by this decision, Napoleon invaded Russia in 1812. As French troops advanced, Russian forces retreated into central Russia and implemented a Scorched Earth Policy, burning all crops, infrastructure, and resources to prevent the invading forces from living off the land.

French forces reached Moscow in September of 1812, but found the city burned. As the harsh Russian winter set in, the retreating French army suffered catastrophic losses from military engagements and severe blizzards. Approximately \n\frac{4}{5}\n of the French army perished during the campaign, ending French control over Russia.

The Collapse of the Empire and the First Exile

Following the catastrophic campaign in Russia, a coalition of European enemies attacked France simultaneously from all directions. By March of 1814, Napoleon was forced to surrender unconditionally. He was exiled to the island of Elba, and Louis XVIII was placed upon the throne to rule France.

The Hundred Days, Defeat at Waterloo, and Final Exile

On March 1, 1815, Napoleon escaped from Elba and returned to France, initiating a period known as the Hundred Days. He informed the public that he wished to rule again as emperor without engaging in territorial conquest. However, European powers mobilized armies to prevent his return to power.

Armies from Prussia, Great Britain, and the Netherlands confronted Napoleon's forces at the Battle of Waterloo. Napoleon was defeated in battle. Following this defeat, Napoleon was placed under permanent house arrest on the island of St. Helena, where he spent the remainder of his life.

The Congress of Vienna and European Restoration

Following the final defeat of Napoleon, European leaders convened at a conference called the Congress of Vienna. The primary objectives of the meeting were to restore political balance across Europe and to establish a mechanism for settling future diplomatic disputes. The president and leader of the congress was Metternich, who argued that Europe should be restored to its pre-revolutionary status prior to the events of the French Revolution.

Metternich advocated that the work of the Congress be guided by three core principles: Compensation, Legitimacy, and Balance of Power. In applying these principles, the Congress redrew the map of Europe, stripped conquered territories away from France, and required France to pay financial compensation. To prevent future French aggression, the Congress created neutral territories known as buffer states around France's borders. Additionally, the Congress created the independent country of Poland.

Diplomatic Alliances and the Concert of Europe

To preserve European political stability, member nations established diplomatic alliances. Great Britain, Austria, Russia, and Prussia formed the Quadruple Alliance. Separately, Russian Tsar Alexander I created the Holy Alliance, which called for Christian monarchs across Europe to govern according to shared religious principles.

These allied nations routinely convened within a diplomatic framework known as the Concert of Europe. Through the Concert of Europe, European powers met collectively to negotiate solutions to international problems and maintain peaceful balance across the continent.