Comprehensive Study Guide for American Government and Politics
Core American Values and Political Ideologies
Individualism and Self-Reliance: This core value emphasizes that people are self-reliant and capable of taking care of themselves. It is inherently tied to the desire for no government control and the belief that no one should be in an individual's personal business.
Free Enterprise: This value allows individuals to create any business they desire. Entrepreneurial activity is left on its own to attempt to generate wealth and profit, favoring a limited government approach to the economy.
Equality of Opportunity: Recognizing that not everyone is born into the same circumstances, this principle attempts to level the playing field. Many favor government intervention here to help reinforce individualism and free enterprise by ensuring a fair starting point.
Equality vs. Equity: * Equality: Defined as everyone being given the exactly same resources. * Equity: Defined as acknowledging different circumstances and providing resources based on specific needs, even if the distribution is not equal.
Rule of Law: This is viewed as a contract between individuals that people will uphold because of a solid justice system. While the law does not physically stop one from rule-breaking, "We, the People" believe in the system and give up some freedom for the government to watch out for us.
Political Spectrum and Ideologies: * Liberals (Progressives/Left): Support the Democratic Party. They favor more government use to address social issues and provide human rights and equal protection. * Conservatives (Right): Support the Republican Party. They favor less government intervention and limited spending. * Moderates: Occupy the middle of the political spectrum. * Libertarians: Represent extreme individualism. They are socially left (pro-choice/individual freedom) and economically right (very hands-off government). They believe the government's primary role is providing law and order. * Populism: A political strategy appealing to "the people" by pitting them against "elites" who are accused of disregarding the concerns of the populace. It is not tied to a specific partisan ideology (e.g., both Obama and Trump utilized populist rhetoric).
Political Socialization
Definition: The process by which an individual develops their political values and beliefs. It is essentially how one's environment and experiences affect their political attitude.
Factors of Influence: * Family: The most significant influence. If both parents belong to one party, the child is far more likely to belong to that same party (though it may occasionally lead them the opposite way). * Other Factors: School, peers, media, social environment, and religion.
Demographics: * Age: Younger voters tend to lean Democratic (D); older voters tend to lean Republican (R). * Race/Gender: Voters of color often lean D; whites often lean R. * Wealth: Wealthy voters lean R; lower-income voters lean D. * Education: College-educated voters lean D; voters with lower education levels lean R.
Globalization: Political socialization is a global phenomenon fueled by interconnected world economies, lowered trade barriers, and advances in communication technology.
Generational and Life Cycle Effects: * Generational Effects: Experiences shared by a group that shape political views, such as war or economic recessions (e.g., Silent Generation 1928-1945, Baby Boomers 1946-1964, Gen X 1965-1980, Millennials 1981-1996, Gen Z 1997-present, Gen Alpha after Gen Z). * Life Cycle Effects: Changes in political attitudes as one ages (e.g., college students with debt may swing left for debt forgiveness; older citizens worry about bills and taxes). * Period Effects: Major events that affect the entire population's attitude, such as the September 11 terrorist attacks, the Watergate scandal, the Vietnam War, and COVID-19.
Measuring Public Opinion and Polling
The Importance of Public Opinion: In a democracy, public opinion (data on what people think) impacts elections and policy debates.
Entities Seeking Public Opinion: * Politicians: To act on behalf of the public and use favorable decisions to boast during re-election campaigns. * Candidates: To learn their odds of winning and determine which issues (e.g., healthcare vs. education) to focus on. * Interest Groups: To find strategies to sway opinion or advance their agenda. * Media: To determine what topics will grab the most attention.
Types of Polls: * Mass Survey (Straw Poll): A "one-time snapshot" of opinion that can change quickly. * Benchmark Poll: Taken at the beginning of a campaign to assess a candidate's starting point; future polls are compared against it to measure progress. * Entrance and Exit Polls: Conducted at physical polling places (Entrance = before voting; Exit = after voting). Voters do not have to share this info, but these offer a "bellwether" prediction of results. * Tracking Poll: An ongoing poll updated periodically (sometimes daily) to monitor effects of debates or events over time. * Focus Group: A small representative sample (5-20 people) for deep-level conversation on why issues matter.
Methodology and Accuracy: * Sample Selection: The best sample is based on "Likely Voters" (LV), followed by "Registered Voters" (RV). * Sample Size: Minimum of 500, but 1,500 is a standard good size. Larger sizes lower the error rate. * Margin of Error: The percentage a poll may be off (). For class purposes, use . * Confidence Level: Standard is . This means of the time, a same-group sample will produce a result within the margin of error. * Confidence Interval Calculation: If a result is with a margin of error, the interval is . * Neutral Language: Questions must be unbiased to be accurate. * Transparency: Credible polls disclose how they were conducted, who was polled (RV vs. LV), and the exact questions asked.
Economic Policy and Schools of Thought
Key Definitions: * Deficit: Spending more money than is made. * Surplus: Making more money than is spent. * Debt: Total amount of money owed. * GDP (Gross Domestic Product): Total value of all goods and services produced.
Fiscal Policy: Controlled by Congress (specifically the House Ways and Means Committee and the Senate). It involves government taxing and spending.
Monetary Policy: Controlled by the Federal Reserve System (FED). It involves managing interest rates and the money supply to prevent inflation.
Economic Schools of Thought: * Keynesian Economics (Liberal): Founded by John Maynard Keynes. Argues that the government should use fiscal policy to stimulate the economy. In a recession, the government should lower taxes for the working class and increase government spending to drive consumer demand (utilized by FDR during the Great Depression). * Supply-Side Economics (Conservative): Argues that if more money is in the hands of investors and businesses, they will expand production. Favors lower taxes on the wealthy/business owners and less government regulation.
Voting Rights and Political Participation
Constitutional Amendments on Suffrage: * 15th Amendment (1870): Voting rights for black men. * 17th Amendment (1913): Direct election of US Senators by the people (rather than state legislatures). * 19th Amendment (1920): Women’s suffrage. * 24th Amendment (1964): Abolished poll taxes. * 26th Amendment (1971): Changed the voting age from 21 to 18 (following the Vietnam War draft).
Voting Rights Act of 1965: Banned literacy tests and other voter suppression tactics.
Motor Voter Act (1993): Made it easier to register to vote while obtaining a driver's license.
Voting Behavior Models: * Rational Choice: Voting based on what will benefit the individual voter most. * Retrospective Voting: Voting based on the candidate's past job performance (often applied to incumbents). * Prospective Voting: Voting based on predictions of how a candidate will perform in the future. * Party-Line Voting: Consistently voting for candidates of the same party as one's family or long-term affiliation.
Voter Turnout Factors: * Higher Turnout: Seen in older, more educated, and white populations; higher in Presidential elections than midterms. * Political Efficacy: The belief that one's vote matters. Turnout is higher in battleground (swing) states because voters feel higher efficacy.
Linkage Institutions: Parties, Interest Groups, and Media
Definition: Linkage institutions connect the people to the government. The four main types are: Elections, Media, Interest Groups, and Political Parties.
Political Parties: * Functions: Recruiting candidates, building a party platform (goals), and voter mobilization/education. * Party Leadership: Includes Majority/Minority leaders and Whips (who unify the party on the platform). * Bipartisan: Both parties working together. Gridlock: When nothing gets accomplished because of disagreement.
Interest Groups: * Main Focus: Typically have one specific issue. They influence policy through lobbying, campaign donations, and "report cards" on politicians. * Specific Groups: AFL-CIO (Labor/Work standards), Chamber of Commerce (Business/Tax breaks), NAACP (Civil rights/Lawyers), NRA (Gun access), AMA (Public health experts), AARP (Elderly/Social Security). * Iron Triangle: The relationship between Congress (Legislation), the Bureaucracy (Implementation), and Interest Groups (Support/Lobbying).
Media ("The Fourth Estate"): * Role: Informing the people objectively and holding government accountable. Most media outlets are for-profit and rely on viewership for ad revenue. * Current State: Increased polarization due to outlets catering to specific target audiences (left vs. right leaning) and the rise of social media allowing direct communication between leaders and followers.
The Three Branches of Government and Foundational Documents
Foundational Ideals: * Social Contract (Thomas Hobbes): Giving up some rights to a powerful government to protect life and property. * Natural Rights (John Locke): Unalienable rights (Life, Liberty, Property) that the government must protect. Included in the Declaration of Independence (Unalienable rights: Life, Liberty, Pursuit of Happiness). * Popular Sovereignty: The people rule themselves; government exists by the consent of the governed.
Articles of Confederation (AoC) vs. Constitution: * AoC Weaknesses: No central government, no power to tax, no national army, required unanimous consent to amend. Shays' Rebellion (farmers' uprising in Massachusetts) demonstrated that the AoC was too weak to respond to crises. * The Great (Connecticut) Compromise: Created a bicameral legislature. The House of Representatives (based on population - Virginia Plan) and the Senate (equal representation - New Jersey Plan). * Three-Fifths Compromise: For representation, five enslaved people counted as three people.
Checks and Balances (Federalist #51): * Legislative (Article I): Makes laws, declares war, power of the purse. The House can impeach; the Senate tries impeachment and confirms appointments. * Executive (Article II): Enforces laws. Powers include Commander-in-Chief, veto power, and executive orders. Federalist #70 argues for a single, powerful executive for decisiveness and accountability. * Judicial (Article III): Interprets laws. Marbury v. Madison (1803) established Judicial Review. Federalist #78 describes the judiciary as the "least dangerous branch" because it has no purse or sword.
Required Supreme Court Cases To Know
Marbury v. Madison (1803): Established Judicial Review.
McCulloch v. Maryland (1819): Established Federal Supremacy over states and implied powers (National Bank).
Schenck v. U.S. (1919): Speech creating a "clear and present danger" is not protected (Espionage Act).
Brown v. Board of Education (1954): Race-based school segregation violates the 14th Amendment Equal Protection Clause.
Baker v. Carr (1962): Redistricting is a justiciable issue; established "one person, one vote."
Engel v. Vitale (1962): School sponsorship of religious activities violates the Establishment Clause.
Gideon v. Wainwright (1963): Right to counsel for defendants (Selectively incorporated the 6th Amendment).
Tinker v. Des Moines (1969): Symbolic speech (black armbands) is protected as long as it isn't disruptive.
New York Times v. U.S. (1971): Bolstered freedom of press; established a heavy burden against prior restraint (Pentagon Papers).
Wisconsin v. Yoder (1972): Free Exercise Clause outweighs state mandatory school attendance for Amish students.
Roe v. Wade (1973): Established a right to privacy regarding abortion (Overturned by Dobbs in 2022).
Shaw v. Reno (1993): Race cannot be the predominant factor in drawing districts (racial gerrymandering).
U.S. v. Lopez (1995): Limited the Commerce Clause; Gun-Free School Zones Act was unconstitutional.
McDonald v. Chicago (2010): Incorporated the 2nd Amendment right to bear arms to the states via the 14th Amendment Due Process Clause.
Citizens United v. FEC (2010): Corporate/union spending on political ads is protected speech; led to the creation of Super PACs (unlimited soft money).