Unit 2a

1/29/26 Thursday Agenda

  • Congress Organization Notes Objective:
      - Explain how Congress is organized.
      - Identify how power is concentrated in Congress.
      - Explain what Congress does and how party power, committees, and chamber rules influence the actions taken by Congress.
      - Expect a quiz tomorrow on this.

United States Congress Overview

  • Structure and organization of the government in the U.S. involving Congress and the Supreme Court within the legislative and judicial branches.

The Legislative Branch

Congress

House of Representatives

  • Members: 435

  • Term Duration: Two-year terms - all members are elected every two years.

  • Leadership:
      - Led by the Speaker of the House - chosen by members of the House.

  • Distribution:
      - Members are distributed to states based on populations; can change every ten years based on the Census.

  • Representation:
      - Members represent a single-member district - a portion of the state whose boundaries are determined by state legislatures.

Senate

  • Members: 100 (Two per state)

  • Term Duration: Six-year terms; 1/3rd of the Senate is elected every two years.

  • Constitutional Leader:
      - The Vice President, but has no power beyond a tie-breaking vote.

  • Actual Leader:
      - The Senate Majority Leader - chosen by the Senate members.

What Does Congress Do?

  • Law Making:
      - Makes laws that govern federal policy; most policy areas are outlined in Article 1, Section 8 of the Constitution.

  • Power of the Purse:
      - Controls federal funding for programs and agencies.

  • Conduct Oversight:
      - Approve or reject presidential appointments and actions.
      - Evaluate the effectiveness of policies, federal agencies, and programs.

How is Policy and Spending Determined?

  • Process:
      - Policy is made through drafting bills and sending them through the legislative process.
      - Most bills do not deal with criminal law; rather, they focus on government policy and agency funding.

Influences on Policy Making and Spending

  • Factors Influencing Policy:
      - Control of each chamber of Congress and the Presidency influences enacted policies.
      - Leadership roles such as Speaker of the House and Senate Majority Leader affect outcomes.
      - Committees play a crucial role in policy making.
      - Chamber rules also dictate the policy-making process.

Party Control

  • Current Control:
      - As of now, the Republican Party controls both chambers of Congress; therefore, Congress is likely to enact Republican policies.

  • Unified vs. Divided Government:
      - Unified Government: One party controls both houses of Congress and the Presidency; policy making can be faster.
      - Divided Government: Different parties control different chambers; policy making is slower and often requires compromises.

  • Majority Requirements:
      - House needs 218 votes for a majority, Senate needs 50 (with VP) or 51 (without VP).

House Redistricting and Gerrymandering

  • Apportionment:
      - House seats are apportioned based on population every decade (during the Census).

  • Gerrymandering:
      - The practice of drawing districts to favor a particular party, resulting in odd-shaped districts and skewed party representation.

Congressional Leadership

  • Power Dynamics:
      - Leaders of both houses determine policy and spending implementation.
      - Majority Party chooses their leaders, often leading to significant control over legislation.

  • Key Positions:
      - Speaker of the House
      - Senate Majority Leader
      - Committee Chairpersons

House of Representatives Leadership

  • Speaker of the House Responsibilities:
      - Recognizes members to speak, organizes committees, determines bill flow to the floor.

  • Majority and Minority Leaders (Floor Leaders):
      - Lead debates among their respective parties, with the minority leader opposing the majority party.

Senate Leadership

  • Key Positions:
      - President of the Senate (VP of the US, non-voting)
      - President Pro Tempore (usually the most senior member)
      - Senate Majority Leader (holds the most power, sets the legislative calendar, controls bill flow)
      - Senate Minority Leader (opposing party leader).

Committees

  • Types of Committees:
      - Standing Committee: Permanent committees handling most Congressional work.
      - Joint Committee: Includes members from both Houses; addresses long-term issues.
      - Select or Special Committee: Temporary with specific purposes or investigations.
      - Conference Committee: Resolves differences in bills from both chambers before final approval.

Permanent Committees of Congress

House Standing Committees

  • Key Committees:
      - Agriculture
      - Appropriations
      - Armed Services
      - Budget
      - Education and the Workforce
      - Energy and Commerce
      - Judiciary
      - Ways and Means

Senate Standing Committees

  • Key Committees:
      - Agriculture, Nutrition, and Forestry
      - Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs
      - Budget
      - Commerce, Science, and Transportation
      - Foreign Relations
      - Judiciary
      - Veterans Affairs

Standing Committees

  • Function:
      - Discuss bills, make amendments or changes, and either approve or reject bills.

  • Leadership Dynamics:
      - The senior member of the majority serves as the committee chair, controlling the committee’s agenda.

Congressional Oversight

  • Responsibilities:
      - Oversee executive agencies, conducting hearings to evaluate their actions.
      - Example: Secretary of State testifying before Congress about military actions.

Filibuster in the Senate

  • Definition: A tactic to delay a vote on a bill by prolonging debate.

  • Cloture: A motion requiring 60 votes to end debate.

  • Exceptions to Filibuster:
      - Certain bills like budgetary bills and presidential appointments cannot be filibustered.

Steps in the Legislative Process

  • 10 Steps to a Bill Becoming Law:
      1. Introduced in House or Senate
      2. Assigned to Committee/Committee Action
      3. Discharge/Floor Debate
      4. Floor Vote
      5. Goes to Other House
      6. Assigned to Committee/Committee Action
      7. Floor Debate
      8. Floor Vote
      9. Presidential Action
      10. Overriding a Veto

Presidential Action

  • The president can either sign the bill into law, veto it, or use a pocket veto.
      - Pocket Veto: Not acting on a bill for 10 days while Congress is in session allows it to become law; if Congress is not in session, the bill dies.

Power of the Purse

  • Definition: Congress's ability to control the national budget and federal funding.

  • Budget Types:
      - Mandatory Spending: Required by law (e.g., Medicare, Social Security).
      - Discretionary Spending: Flexible spending that Congress can adjust annually.

  • Congress's Role:
      - Reviews and approves federal budgets proposed by the President.

  • Consequences of Budget Disagreements:
      - Government shutdowns occur if budgets aren't finalized by certain deadlines, leading to reduction of non-essential services.

Government Shutdowns

  • Definition: Occurs when Congress fails to agree on a budget, leading to a halt in nonessential government services.

  • Partial Shutdowns: Some agencies can close while others remain operational.

Congressional Approval Ratings

  • General trends have shown a decrease in approval rates for Congress over time, while individual members sometimes maintain higher approval.

Partisan Gridlock

  • Definition: When political parties are unable to compromise, leading to legislative stagnation.

  • Causes of Gridlock:
      - Divided government (different parties controlling different branches).
      - Increased political polarization and reduced inter-party interaction.

Redistricting and Gerrymandering

  • Impacts:
      - Affects the competitiveness of elections based on how district lines are drawn, sometimes favoring one political party.

Judicial Tenure

Lifetime Tenure of Judges

  • Explained through Article III of the Constitution, which establishes judicial independence necessary for fair and impartial rulings.

Marbury v. Madison

  • Discusses the establishment of judicial review, solidifying the judiciary's role as a check on the other branches.

Purpose of Judicial Review

  • Allows courts to invalidate legislative or executive actions that conflict with the Constitution.

Conclusion on Judicial Independence

  • Lifetime tenure ensures that judges can make decisions without undue influence, essential for a balanced government.

Summary of Judicial Structure

  • U.S. Supreme Court: Highest court with final authority.

  • District Courts: Trial courts where cases are first heard.

  • Court of Appeals: Reviews decisions made in District Courts.

Overview of Judicial Decisions

  • Judicial Activism vs. Restraint: Judges' philosophies on whether to uphold previous court rulings or to exercise judicial review.

Shifts in Court Opinions

  • Can occur due to changes in membership or prevailing societal views.

Final Note on Constitutional Principles

  • The system of checks and balances is fundamental to protecting against tyranny and ensuring that no single branch of government holds absolute power.