Comprehensive Study Notes on Indo-Islamic Architecture in India

Overview of Indo-Islamic Architecture in India

• Historical Context: Islamic architecture in India began in the $12^{th}$ century and evolved through several centuries. It represents a synthesis, fusion, or amalgam of Indian, Persian, and Central Asian architectural traditions.
• Terminology: This new form is known as "Indo-Islamic architecture" or "Indo-Saracenic architecture."
• Developmental Phases: The style developed primarily under the Muslim rulers of the Delhi Sultanate, the Mughal Empire, the Deccan Sultans, and various regional Muslim kingdoms.
• Philosophical Underpinnings: Islamic philosophy emphasizes congregational prayer, leading to the construction of spacious mosques. The practice of burial led to the evolution of monumental tombs and maqbaras.

Comparison of Architectural Styles: Trabeate vs. Arcuate

• Trabeate Style (Pre-Islamic Indian Architecture):
  • Characterized by the use of pillars and beams (lintels).
  • Features pyramidal towers or slender spires.
  • Utilized sophisticated stone-on-stone techniques without heavy mortar usage.
• Arcuate Style (Indo-Islamic Architecture):
  • Introduced by Muslims from Central Asia and Persia.
  • Main features include the use of the arch, dome, and vault.
  • Introduced scientific methods and the extensive use of concrete and lime mortar as binding agents.
  • Early structures often followed the Hindu style with minimal Islamic influence until the style matured.

The Nine Historical Cities of Delhi

Throughout the various dynasties, Delhi was rebuilt multiple times. The transcript identifies nine distinct eras/cities:

1. Indraprastha: Associated with the Pandavas and Mauryas ($4^{th}$ century and $11^{th}$ century/Indapatta).
2. Lalkot / Qila Rai Pithora: Established in the $12^{th}$ century by the Tomar and Chauhan dynasties (Prithviraj Chauhan).
3. Siri: Established in the $14^{th}$ century by the Khilji dynasty (Alauddin Khilji).
4. Tughlaqabad: Established in the $14^{th}$ century by the Tughlaqs (Ghias-ud-din Tughlaq).
5. Jahanpanah: Established in the $14^{th}$ century by the Tughlaqs (Muhammad bin Tughlaq).
6. Firozabad: Established in the $14^{th}$ century by the Tughlaqs (Ferozshah Tughlaq).
7. Shergarh / Dinpanah: Established in the $15^{th}$ century by the Mughals (Humayun) and Shershah Suri.
8. Shahjahanabad: Established in the $17^{th}$ century by the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan.
9. New Delhi: Established in the $19^{th}$ century during British rule.

Fundamental Elements and Decorative Features

• Domes: Adopted from Persian and Central Asian styles, these symbolize the supremacy of the Almighty. They are often decorated with geometric tiles.
• Arches: Evolution from pointed arches (two-centered and four-centered) to cusped, foliated, and ogee arches. The "spandrel" is the decorative space between the arch and its rectangular frame.
• Squinch: A wedge that fits on the top corners of a square space, turning it into an octagon to support a circular dome.
• Muqarnas: A decorative honey-comb motif consisting of a group of small arched cells stacked upon each other.
• Finial: The crowning element of a dome, often made of masonry, marble, or metal, showing indigenous motifs like the Purna-kalasha (lotus).
• Arabesque: An Islamic form of decoration featuring interlacing curved, pointed, and smooth lines and stems.
• Calligraphy: The art of Islamic visual expression where Qur'anic verses are inscribed in arches, walls, and pillars.
• Inlay Work: Also known as mosaic work, where colorful semi-precious stones are fitted into stone or marble.

Religious Architecture: The Mosque (Masjid)

• Definition: A place of worship for Muslims. Large mosques used for Friday congregational prayers are called "Jama Masjid" or "Jami Masjid."
• Core Components:
  • Liwan: A large, spacious prayer hall intended to hold the entire male population of a city.
  • Sahn: An open courtyard generally adjoined to the Liwan.
  • Haud: A water tank located in the courtyard used for ablutions (wudu) before prayer.
  • Mihrab: A semi-circular niche in the qibla wall indicating the direction of Mecca ($West$ from India).
  • Mimber: A pulpit (elevated stand) to the right of the Mihrab, often having three steps, where the Imam delivers sermons (Khuthbah).
  • Minar (Minaret): A tower intended for the Muazzin to call the faithful to prayer (Azan). It is also described as a "place of light."
  • Riwaq / Cloisters: Pillared verandahs or enclosed walkways surrounding the courtyard.
  • Qibla: The wall that indicates the direction of prayer toward Mecca.

Religious Architecture: The Tomb (Maqbara)

• Purpose: A monument constructed to honor the memory of the dead. Unlike the simple mosque, tombs are often impressive, beautified structures intended to showcase majesty and grandeur.
• Structure:
  • Tomb Chamber: Contains the cenotaph at the center.
  • Cenotaph: A commemorative monument over the grave.
  • Mortuary / Qabr: The actual grave located in an underground chamber.
  • Dargah: The tomb of a Muslim saint.
• Gardens: Tombs were often placed in "paradisiacal" elements, such as the Charbagh (rectangular layout with canals and fountains), symbolizing eternal paradise.

Secular and Military Architecture

• Secular Architecture: Built for the comfort and power display of the ruler. Examples include palaces (Fatehpur Sikri), gardens (Shalimar Bagh), and recreational pavilions.
• Military Architecture: Developed for defense and strategic purposes. Includes monumental forts with embattlements, watchtowers, and massive gateways (e.g., Red Fort in Agra and Delhi).
• Recreational Architecture: Created for pleasure and leisure, such as the Mughal Gardens in Srinagar (Shalimar and Nishat Baghs), influenced by Persian designs with rectilinear layouts, canals, and aromatic grasses.

The Delhi Sultanate (Imperial Style) Dynasties

The Imperial Style flourished between $1191$ and $1557$ $\text{AD}$.

• Slave (Mamluk/Ilbari) Dynasty (1206–1290):

  • Rulers: Qutub-ud-din Aibak, Iltumish, Ghiyasuddin Balban.
  • Key Site: Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque (Delhi), built on the sites of destroyed temples. It features Arhai din ka jhopra in Ajmer.
  • Qutub Minar: Tapering tower, $73\,m$ ($240\,ft$) high, 5 storeys, 379 steps. Built using red sandstone and marble with calligraphic engravings. Construction started by Aibak ($1199$ $\text{AD}$) and was completed by Iltumish.

• Khilji Dynasty (1290–1320):

  • Rulers: Jalal-ud-din Khilji and Alauddin Khilji.
  • Architecture: Introduced the "Seljuk style"; used red sandstone with marble relief.
  • Key Site: Alai Darwaza (entrance to the Qutub complex), featuring a true arch in the form of a pointed horseshoe and recessed arches under the squinch.
  • Others: Siri Fort (second city of Delhi), Alai Minar (planned to be twice the size of Qutub Minar), Hauz Khas reservoir, and Jamat Khana Masjid.

• Tughlaq Dynasty (1320–1413):

  • Architecture: Focused on strength rather than beauty. Introduced sloping walls called "Batt" (a combination of lintel and arch techniques).
  • Materials: Typically used grey sandstone with minimum decoration.
  • Key Site: Tughlaqabad city, Tomb of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (built of red sandstone, irregular pentagon plan, "Tartar" shape).
  • Others: Jahanpanah city, Firozshah Kotla, Khirkee Mosque.

• Sayyid and Lodi Dynasties (1414–1557):

  • Context: Period of scarcity and instability; primarily tombs were constructed.
  • Innovation: Introduced the "Double Dome"—an inner layer for the ceiling and an outer layer for height and external appearance. Effectively used in the Tomb of Sikandar Lodi ($1518$ $\text{AD}$).
  • Tomb Shapes: Octagonal plans (e.g., Mubarak Sayyid and Muhammad Sayyid) and square plans. Features often included Hindu chhatris (pavilions) capped by lotus finials.

Provincial Styles of Architecture

• Bengal Style (1203–1573 AD):

  • Known for brick construction and terracotta ornamentation.
  • Eklakhi Tomb: Prototype for Bengal Islamic architecture; octagonal hall ($47\,ft$ wide), hemispherical dome, and doorways taken from Hindu temples (e.g., featuring Lord Vishnu figures).
  • Dakhil Darwaza (Gaur): Triumphal arch ($10.35\,m$ high) made of brick, also called "Salami Gate."
  • Adina Mosque: Early example in Pandua.

• Jaunpur Style (1376–1479 AD):

  • Characterized by "pylon" structures and the Sharqi dynasty.
  • Atala Masjid: Built on the site of the Atala Devi temple. Features a massive central iwan/portal ($23\,m$ tall) that hides the dome from the courtyard view.
  • Jami Masjid (Jaunpur): Largest Jaunpur mosque, built on a $6\,m$ high plinth.

• Gujarat Style (1300–1572 AD):

  • Considered the most "indigenously Indian" of provincial styles. Includes geometric/floral panels and perforated screens (Jali).
  • Jami Masjid (Ahmedabad): High water mark of mosque design in Western India; courtyard measures $255\,ft \times 220\,ft$.
  • Jami Masjid (Champanir): Features molded buttresses and traceried openings.

• Malwa Style (1405–1569 AD):

  • Centered in Dhar and Mandu. Features battered walls and "boat-keel" domes.
  • Mandu Achievements: Jami Masjid (red sandstone, monumental entrance), Hoshang Shah's Tomb (white marble, square structure of $86\,ft$ side), Jahaz Mahal (Ship Palace between two lakes), and Hindola Mahal (Swinging Palace with massive sloping walls).

• Bijapur Style (1490–1656 AD):

  • Flourished under the Adil Shahi dynasty. Characteristic features include spherical domes rising from a band of petals.
  • Gol Gumbaz: The tomb of Sultan Muhammad Adil Shah. Massive hall with a square podium. The dome is supported by a system of intersecting arches.
  • Ibrahim Rauza: Notable for its delicate carvings and symmetry.

Symmetry and Engineering in Islamic Buildings

• Symmetry: Extensively used in balancing minarets and domes.
  • Vertical Symmetry: Achieved using waterfronts (reflections).
  • Horizontal Symmetry: Identical walls facing each other (e.g., the Taj Mahal).
• Water Management: Elaborate canals, pools, and fountains required advanced engineering, often bringing water from distant sources to maintain the Charbagh gardens.
• Materials: Rubble masonry for walls, with finishes in limestone, red sandstone, and marble.