Mughal Architecture and the Taj Mahal: From Dynastic Power to Colonial Synthesis

Introductory Discussion and Class Logistics

The instructor addresses the issue of student absences, noting that students have a total of $4$ absences to use at their discretion.
There is a brief discussion about student goals (e.g., getting an A versus learning specifically desired content).
The instructor clarifies a confusion regarding a previous lecture; they had mixed up lectures and initially thought the class was covering the Aztecs (specifically human sacrifice) before realizing the current topic is Mughal architecture and the Taj Mahal.

The Mughal Dynasty: Heritage, Power, and Authority

Ancestry and Origins: The Mughal dynasty begins with Babur, who was descended from two major conquerors: Timur (conqueror of Samarkand and Northern India) and Genghis Khan. The Mughals were extremely proud of this heritage.
Political Succession: Power was passed from father to son, but not necessarily to the firstborn. This resulted in frequent fratricide and violent internal power struggles.
Economic Dominance: The Mughals ruled over approximately a quarter ( $25\%$ —though the transcript notes "quarter of the world's population") of the world's population. They leveraged India's resources, developed production, and dominated Muslim-led trade in the Indian Ocean and via overland routes.
Common Trade Identity: Trade thrived due to a shared legal system (governed by Islam), a common language, and shared commercial practices.
The Decline of the Empire: The era of great power ended with Aurangzeb. After his reign, the empire "fractured like a mirror" due to increased intervention by the British East India Company and Aurangzeb’s lack of religious toleration and civic investment compared to his predecessors.
Aurangzeb's Rule: Unlike prior rulers, Aurangzeb treated Hindus as secondary citizens, precluding them from significant roles, and lacked the political goodwill of his forebearers.

Architectural Antecedents: Humayun's Tomb

Designer and Date: Designed and executed by Guiwaf, though largely based on the notebooks/diaries of Emperor Humayun. It was constructed in Delhi between $1562$ and $1572$ .
Humayun as a Figure: He was interested in warfare, poetry, and invention. He was described as sensitive (writing poems to birds/colors) yet bloodthirsty (having ranks of elephants trample generals who disobeyed orders).
Architectural Terms and Features:
    - Chamfered (Canted) Corners: Edges angled or beveled at $45$ degrees, turning a square plan into an octagon.
    - Pishtaq: A monumental flat surface or rectangular frame preceding an Iwan.
    - Iwan: A vaulted chamber located inside the Pishtaq.
    - Chatri: A dome-like pavilion; originally meaning "umbrella," evolved into enterable spaces.
Material Symbolism: The building uses red sandstone and white marble. This reflects a synthesis of the Indian social system:
- White Stone: Associated with the Brahmin (priestly) caste.
- Red Stone: Associated with the warrior class.
Layout and Plan:
- Hash-Bihisht (Eight Paradises): A symmetrical plan based on an octagon, representing the eight levels or gateways of heaven in Islam.
- Podium: The tomb stands on a podium containing $124$ vaulted chambers, where approximately $160$ family members and elites are interred. The actual sarcophagi are kept in a crypt beneath the platform to keep them safe, with replicas on the main floor.
Interior Decoration: Originally features Timurid-style arched ribs, gilding, and enamel. The space would have been filled with the scent of incense and decorated with warrior symbols (crown, sword, Quran) and textiles.

Decorative Elements: Jalli Screens

Definition: Jalli is a perforated stone or wood lattice screen found in Indian and Islamic architecture.
Functionality: They act as climate control by regulating temperature and airflow while blocking direct sunlight.
Visual Quality: They create an interplay of light and shadow. From the outside, they act as an asymmetrical filter (difficult to see in), while providing a clear view out for those inside.
Patterns: Designs include calligraphy, geometric shapes, and floral or plant-like motifs.

Akbar the Great and Fatehpur Sikri

Accession: Akbar became emperor at $14$ years old after his father, Humayun, died from a fall down palace stairs (tripping on his own long gown after attending to his racing pigeons).
Characteristics: Functionally illiterate due to a likely learning disability, yet a brilliant military general and politician.
Strategic Alliances: He used a "conquest or alliance" strategy with the Rajput kingdoms. He married a Rajput princess, Hirakunwar (or Jodha Bai), who gave birth to his heir, Jahangir.
Fatehpur Sikri ( $1569$ ): A city and capital used for about $10$ years before being abandoned due to inadequate water supply.
Design Philosophy: Unlike the bilateral symmetry of Humayun's tomb, Fatehpur Sikri uses a staggered, shifting axial scheme. Courts are distributed along a diagonal ridge, which aligns with the orientation of the Great Mosque (facing Mecca).
Key Buildings in Fatehpur Sikri:
    - Panch Mahal: A five-story structure with receding tiers of Chatris used for viewing the sunrise.
    - Tomb of Salim Chishti: A white marble tomb for a Sufi saint located within the red sandstone city. Features "sinuous corbel brackets" and Rajput-influenced Jalli screens.
    - Jama Masjid (Friday Mosque): Previously the largest mosque in South Asia; features a building section that makes the gate look monumental from the exterior but modest from the interior.
    - Buland Darwaza (Victory Gate): $54\,m$ high, built in $1573$ to celebrate victory in Gujarat. It features a lofty flight of stairs to exaggerate its height.
    - Anup Talao (Peerless Pool): A square masonry tank ( $30\,m$ per side, $4\,m$ deep) with a central platform for performances and a cooling system for royal apartments.
Diwan-i-Khas (Private Audience Hall):
    - A unique building featuring a central "mushroom-like" pillar with serpentine brackets.
    - Akbar would sit on top of the pillar, connected by four bridges to his ministers.
    - Symbolized Akbar’s "Divine Religion" (pluralistic cult) which brought together Muslims, Hindus, Sikhs, and Jesuit priests.

The Taj Mahal: The Perfected Monument

Patron: Shah Jahan (reigned $1627-1658$ ).
Architect: Ustad Ahmad Lahori (noted in transcript as "Ustad Lahore").
Purpose: A mausoleum for Mumtaz Mahal ("Jewel of the Palace"), Shah Jahan’s favorite wife, who died giving birth to their $11$ th child.
Site Context: Located on the Yamuna River in Agra; in dialogue with the Red Fort.
Design Principles: Bilateral symmetry, modularity, and uniformity.
Key Innovations: Placing the tomb at the end of the Charbagh garden (not the center) to create depth.
Materiality and Inlay:
    - Pietra Dura (Parchin Kari): An inlay technique using semi-precious stones (rubies, emeralds) set into marble.
    - Floral Imagery: Influenced by European botanical studies brought by missionaries. Poetic symbolism: Shah Jahan as the "spring of the flower in the Garden of Justice."
    - Calligraphy: Contains the longest program of Quranic inscriptions in the world, focused on themes of the afterlife and paradise.
Interior: Features the Hash-Bihisht plan. The cenotaphs for Mumtaz (center) and Shah Jahan (off-center) are surrounded by an octagonal marble Jalli screen. The real graves are in a crypt below.
Shah Jahan's End: His son (Aurangzeb) seized power, executed brothers, and imprisoned Shah Jahan in the Red Fort for the remainder of his life, where he could only see the Taj Mahal from a window.

British Colonial Synthesis (Indo-Saracenic Architecture)

Context: British architects in the $19$ th century synthesized Gothic Revival and Mughal architecture to express imperial power.
Samuel Swinton Jacob: Produced the "Jeypore Portfolio," a guide for these architectural elements.
Key Examples:
    - Albert Hall Museum (Jaipur, $1876$ ): Uses Mughal pavilion styles.
    - Gateway of India (Mumbai, $1911$ ): Designed by George Wittet (George Willett in transcript) to commemorate the visit of King George V and Queen Mary. Combines the form of a Roman/Triumphal arch with Mughal stylistic elements.
    - University of Madras ( $1870$ s): Designed by Chisholm; combines Gothic window structures (like rosette windows) with Mughal onion domes and Chatris.
    - Anjuman-I-Islam School (Mumbai, $1874$ ): Founded by progressive Muslims, utilizing a Gothic structural schema with Islamic ornamentation.

Questions & Discussion

Student Question: "Who do you say was in the tomb again?"
Instructor Response: Humayun (specifically referring to Humayun's Tomb).
Student Question: "What is the main reason for not trying to repaint or remodel these historic sites even though the Kaaba is constantly refurbished?"
Instructor Response: Restoration is ongoing, but the politics of India are a factor. A powerful Hindu nationalist group currently disputes the history of Mughal monuments like the Taj Mahal, falsely claiming it was built over a Hindu temple. Because history is being "weaponized," adding to or rebuilding these sites is a hotly contested political topic.
Student Question: "Were these [Jalli screens] influenced by the lotus in Persian architecture or were they came up with independently?"
Instructor Response: They were definitely influenced by Persian architecture; there was significant sharing and trading of designs between regions.
Student Question: "Was the Sikh religion also included in this [Akbar's council]?"
Instructor Response: Yes, Sikhs were included. Akbar was "omnivorous in his curiosity."
Student Question: "How would they get up there [the Buland Darwaza]?"
Instructor Response: Through scaffolding made of wood (or bamboo, as seen in China). Sometimes buildings have marks where beams were plunged into walls to support scaffolding.
Student Question: "Can I still get the quiz [points]?"
Instructor Response: Yes, the instructor decides to give all attending students the full $5$ (later clarified as marking for full credit) points for being present while half the class is absent.