Harappan Society

Foundations of Harappan Society

• Harappan society developed in the Indus Valley civilization.

• The society was named after Harappa, one of the chief cities in the region.

• The Indus River provided water for irrigation of crops, leading to agricultural growth.

• Neolithic villages evolved into thriving cities by 3000 B.C.E.

Challenges in Studying Harappan Society

• Early Harappan physical remains are inaccessible due to silt deposits and a raised water table.

• The earliest accessible remains date from around 2500 B.C.E.

• Harappans had a system of writing, but it has not been deciphered yet.

• Scholars rely on the study of material remains uncovered by archaeologists since the 1920s.

The Indus River

• The Indus River, like the Nile, played a crucial role in Harappan society.

• It drew its waters from the Hindu Kush and Himalayas, providing fertile soil.

• The Indus would annually flood its vast floodplain, allowing for agriculture.

• The region received important food crops and domesticated animals from Mesopotamia.

Harappan Society and Culture

• Harappan society was built on the foundation of an agricultural economy.

• The society brought wealth and power to the Indus River valley.

• Environmental problems possibly led to the decline of Harappan society.

• Indo-European migrants from central Asia introduced a different society to India.

The Indo-European Migrations and Early Vedic India

• The Aryans, a herding people who spoke an Indo-European language, migrated to south Asia after 1500 B.C.E.

• They took the war god Indra as their chief deity.

• The Aryans clashed with the original inhabitants of south Asia, taking Indra as their guide.

• Indra was praised as a military hero who opened the way for the migrants to build a new society.

The Aryans and India

• The Aryans did not mount a planned invasion of India but migrated in sizable numbers.

• They came into conflict with Dravidian and other peoples already living in India.

• Tensions between Aryans and Dravidians subsided as they mixed and intermarried.

• Memories of the stormy and violent Indra faded over time.

Origins of the Caste System

• The caste system in India has its origins in Aryan society.

• The Aryans divided society into four main varnas or social classes.

• The varnas were based on occupation and hereditary status.

• The caste system became more rigid over time.

The Development of Patriarchal Society

• Aryan society was patriarchal, with men holding positions of power and authority.

• Women's roles were primarily domestic, focused on marriage and child-rearing.

• Patriarchal values were blended with Dravidian values as Aryan and Dravidian peoples mixed.

Religion in the Vedic Age

• Aryan religion during the Vedic Age revolved around rituals and sacrifices.

• The Aryans worshipped various gods and goddesses, with Indra being a prominent deity.

• Aryan priests consumed a hallucinogenic potion called soma during rituals.

• The blending of Aryan and Dravidian values led to the development of a rich cultural tradition.

• Indus valley inhabitants cultivated cotton before 5000 B.C.E.

• Fragments of dyed cloth dating to about 2000 B.C.E. testify to the existence of a cotton textile industry.

Chapter 4 - Early Societies in South Asia:

• Agricultural surpluses in India increased the food supply, stimulated population growth, and supported the establishment of cities and specialized labor.

• Between 3000 and 2500 B.C.E., a complex society emerged in the Indus River valley.

• Harappa and Mohenjo-daro were two large cities in the Indus River valley.

• Harappan society covered a territory of about 1.3 million square kilometers.

• No evidence survives concerning the Harappan political system.

• Harappa and Mohenjo-daro were prominent in Harappan society.

• The population of Mohenjo-daro was thirty-five to forty thousand.

• Harappa and Mohenjo-daro had city walls, a fortified citadel, and a large granary.

• The two cities served as centers of political authority and sites for the collection and redistribution of taxes.

• The two cities had marketplaces, temples, public buildings, extensive residential districts, and broad streets laid out on a carefully planned grid.

• Mohenjo-daro had a large pool, possibly used for religious or ritual purposes.

• The Indus River facilitated trade, travel, and communications among the regions of Harappan society.

• Harappan society generated considerable wealth.

• Mohenjo-daro was a thriving economic center with a population of about forty thousand.

• Different professionals maintained shops in Mohenjo-daro.

• Social distinctions existed in Harappan society.

• Rich and poor lived in different styles of dwellings.

• Mohenjo-daro had a sophisticated water and sewage system.

• Harappan beliefs and values are difficult to interpret without deciphered writing.

• Harappan society had a tradition of representational art and expertise in metallurgy.

• A bronze figurine of a dancing girl discovered at Mohenjo-daro is particularly striking.

Early Societies in South Asia

• Harappan religion focused on fertility and procreation

  • Venerated gods and goddesses associated with creation and procreation

  • Recognized a mother goddess and a horned fertility god

  • Held trees and animals sacred due to their associations with vital forces

  • Similarities between Harappan and Hindu deities associated with fertility and procreation

• Harappan society entered a period of decline after 1900 B.C.E.

  • Ecological degradation as a major cause of decline

    • Deforestation of the Indus valley for cultivation and firewood

    • Deforestation led to erosion of topsoil and reduced rainfall

    • Most of the Indus valley became a desert

  • Natural catastrophes like periodic flooding of the Indus River or earthquakes weakened Harappan society

    • Unburied human skeletons found in Mohenjo-daro

    • No sign of criminal or military violence, suggesting a sudden flood or earthquake

• By about 1700 B.C.E., Harappa and Mohenjo-daro were abandoned

  • Mounting difficulties made it impossible to sustain complex urban societies

• Harappan social and cultural traditions survived the decline of the cities

  • Harappan ways adopted by peoples from other societies

  • Cultivation of wheat, barley, and cotton continued in the Indus valley

  • Harappan deities and religious beliefs intrigued migrants to India and found a home in new societies

The Indo-European Migrations and Early Vedic India

• Harappan urban traditions may have inspired the establishment of new cities in south Asia.

• Foreigners, including Indo-European speaking Aryans, settled in the Indian subcontinent after the decline of Harappan society.

• The Aryans entered India through the passes of the Hindu Kush mountains and established small herding and agricultural communities.

• The Aryans did not invade or destroy Harappan society, as it was already in decline when they arrived.

• Dravidian and Indo-European peoples intermarried and laid social and cultural foundations that influenced Indian society.

The Aryans and India

• The early Aryans practiced a pastoral economy and relied heavily on horses and cattle.

• Horses were valuable and had to be imported from central Asia as they did not breed well in India.

• Cattle became the principal measure of wealth in early Aryan society.

• The Aryans composed poems and songs, preserving them orally in Sanskrit, their sacred language.

• The Vedas, collections of hymns, songs, prayers, and rituals, were the earliest orally transmitted works of the Aryans.

• The Rig Veda is the most important of the four Vedas, composed between 1400 and 900 B.C.E.

• The Vedas provide knowledge about early Aryan society in India and are important historical sources.

• The period between 1500 and 500 B.C.E. is referred to as the Vedic age.

The Vedic Age

• The Vedas reflect a society where the Aryans clashed with the Dravidians and other indigenous peoples.

• Conflicts between Aryans and indigenous peoples are mentioned in the Vedas.

• The Aryans often had friendly relations with Dravidian peoples and adopted their agricultural techniques.

• Competition over land and resources fueled intermittent conflict between Aryan and Dravidian peoples.

• The Aryans formed chiefdoms organized around herding communities and agricultural villages.

• Chiefs known as rajas governed with the help of village elders.

• Conflict among the numerous chiefdoms was common, with raids on neighboring villages and disputes over cattle.

Aryan Migrations in India

• Aryan groups settled in the Punjab, the upper Indus River valley

• Aryan migrants spread east and south and established communities throughout the Indian subcontinent

• After 1000 B.C.E., they settled in the area between the Himalayan foothills and the Ganges River

• They learned how to make iron tools and cleared forests to establish agricultural communities in the Ganges valley

• They began to cultivate rice instead of wheat and barley

• By 750 B.C.E., Aryans had established the first small cities in the Ganges River valley

• Aryan groups migrated as far south as the northern Deccan by 500 B.C.E.

Changing Political Organization

• As Aryans settled into permanent communities, they lost their tribal political organization

• Councils of elders became the principal sources of political authority in some isolated regions

• Chiefdoms developed into regional kingdoms in most places

• Tribal chiefs worked from permanent capitals and relied on professional administrators

• Regional kingdoms became the most common form of political organization in the subcontinent

Origins of the Caste System

• The Aryan social structure had sharp hereditary distinctions based on occupations and roles in society

• The caste system developed slowly as the Aryans established settlements in India

• The term "caste" comes from the Portuguese word "casta"

• Caste identities developed gradually as social complexity increased

• The Aryans used the term "varna" to refer to the major social classes

• Social distinctions were partly based on differences in complexion between Aryans and Dravidians

• Four main varnas were recognized: brahmins, kshatriyas, vaishyas, and shudras

• The category of untouchables was added later, who performed dirty or unpleasant tasks

The Caste System in Ancient India

Varna Distinctions

• Late hymn of the Rig Veda describes the creation of the four varnas (brahmins and kshatriyas as the most honorable)

• Recognition of varnas enhanced the status and power of priestly and aristocratic classes

Subcastes and Jati

• Before the 6th century B.C.E., the four varnas described Vedic society

• As society became more complex, a more elaborate scheme of social classification emerged

• Caste system served as the umbrella for a hierarchy of subcastes known as jati

• Occupation largely determined an individual's jati

• By the 18th and 19th centuries, the system featured several thousand jati, with brahmins alone divided into 1,800 jati

• Even untouchables belonged to jati, with some looking down upon others

Influence of Castes and Subcastes

• Castes and subcastes deeply influenced the lives of individuals in Indian society

• Members of a jati ate with one another, intermarried, and cared for each other

• Elaborate rules dictated forms of address and behavior between different castes and subcastes

• Violation of jati rules could result in expulsion from the larger group, leading to difficulties in functioning and survival

Social Mobility and Group Efforts

• Upward mobility in the caste system was possible but not easy

• Moving to a new area or taking on a new line of work could improve individual or group status

• Possibility of improving status helped dissipate tensions in Indian society

• Group efforts within jati played a role in improving collective conditions

Inclusion of Foreigners in the Caste System

• The caste system allowed foreign peoples to find a place in Indian society

• Many foreigners entered India over the centuries and organized themselves into well-defined groups with caste identities

Caste System as a Foundation of Social Organization

• By the end of the Vedic age, caste distinctions became central institutions in Aryan India

• The caste system served as a principal foundation of social organization in India

• Individuals identified more closely with their jati than with their cities or states

• Castes played a large role in maintaining social discipline in India

Patriarchal Society

• The Aryans established a strongly patriarchal social order alongside the caste system

• Men dominated Aryan society, with all priests, warriors, and tribal chiefs being men

• Descent was recognized through the male line

• Women had no public authority and their influence was limited to their families

Social Mobility in the Caste System

• The caste system accommodated social change and allowed for social mobility

• Individuals occasionally turned to new lines of work and prospered based on their initiative

• Brahmins or kshatriyas sometimes fell on hard times and moved down in the social hierarchy

• Social mobility often occurred through group efforts rather than individual actions

Importance of Traditions

• The caste system and patriarchal social order were prominent features of Aryan society

• These traditions shaped the social hierarchy and gender roles in ancient India

The Lawbook of Manu

• The Lawbook of Manu reflects the society constructed earlier under Aryan influence

• It sought to place women explicitly under the authority of men

• The author advised men to treat women with honor and respect, but insisted on women's subordination to men

• The Lawbook of Manu dealt with proper moral behavior and social relationships, including sex and gender relationships

• Vedic India had a deeply patriarchal social order

  • Women were dependent on men

  • Women's most important duties were to bear children and maintain wholesome homes

• The practice of sati (or suttee) demonstrated the dependence of women on men

  • Sati was the act of a widow voluntarily throwing herself on the funeral pyre of her deceased husband

  • Sati was not a popular or widely practiced custom in India, but was recommended for widows of socially prominent men

• The chief deity of the Rig Veda was Indra, a war god associated with thunderbolts and rain

• The Aryans recognized a host of other deities, including gods of the sun, the sky, the moon, fire, health, disease, dawn, and the underworld

• Varuna, another deity, oversaw the behavior of mortals and preserved the cosmic order

  • Varuna despised lying and evil deeds and punished malefactors with severe punishments

• Aryan religious traditions merged with Dravidian beliefs and values, laying the foundation for Hinduism

Aryan Religion:

• Aryan religious values reflected the larger society, which was often violent

• The proper performance of ritual sacrifices was important for gaining the favor of the gods

• Ritual sacrifices involved the slaughter of specially prepared animals and the consumption of soma, a hallucinogenic concoction

• The Aryans believed that the gods visited the earth during the sacrificial event and joined the worshipers in ritual eating and drinking

• Frequent and large sacrifices were believed to ensure military success, large families, long life, and abundant herds of cattle

• Proper honor for the gods required households to have brahmins perform at least five sacrifices per day

Spirituality:

• Aryan religious thought evolved over time

• The later Vedic age saw a remarkable evolution in Aryan religious thought

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• Dissatisfaction with sacrificial cults of the Vedas

  • Rituals seemed sterile and mechanical

  • Did not satisfy spiritual longings

• Thoughtful individuals retreated to forests of Ganges valley

  • Lived as hermits and reflected on relationships between humans, world, and gods

  • Contemplated the Vedas and sought mystical understandings

  • Attracted disciples seeking spiritually fulfilling faith

• Inspiration from religious beliefs of Dravidian peoples

  • Worshiped nature spirits associated with fertility and generation of new life

  • Believed in transmigration and reincarnation of souls

• Tradition of religious speculation emerged

• Upanishads as the fullest development of this tradition

  • Upanishads began to appear late in the Vedic age (800-400 B.C.E.)

  • Upanishads means "a sitting in front of"

  • Dialogues exploring the Vedas and religious issues

• Concept of Brahman, the Universal Soul

  • Individual human beings are not separate and autonomous creatures

  • Each person participates in a larger cosmic order and forms a small part of Brahman

  • Brahman is eternal, unchanging, and the only genuine reality

• Goal of individual soul is to escape the cycle of birth and rebirth and enter into permanent union with Brahman

Teachings of the Upanishads

• Doctrine of samsara

  • Individual souls go temporarily to the World of the Fathers upon death and then return to earth in a new incarnation

• Doctrine of karma

  • Accounts for specific incarnations that souls experience

  • Individuals are rewarded or punished based on their actions and behavior

  • Virtuous lives lead to rebirth into a purer and more honorable existence

  • Accumulating heavy burden of karma leads to difficult existence or even being reborn as an animal or insect

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• Mundaka Upanishad is referred to as "the shaving Upanishad" because it cuts off errors in the mind

• Purpose of the Upanishad is to teach knowledge of Brahman

• Brahman is the Creator of all, the Guardian of the Universe

• Brahman is beyond thought and invisible, everlasting and omnipresent

• Creation arises from the Eternal

• Brahman attains expansion through Tapas (meditation)

• Cycle of rebirth involves pain and suffering

• Goal is to attain moksha, a state of permanent liberation from physical incarnation

• From Brahman comes Brahma, the creator, and all beings in the universe

• The spirit of light above form is in radiance above life and mind, and beyond the creation's Creator

• From Brahman comes all life, mind, senses, elements, and the earth

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• Means to achieve moksha are asceticism and meditation

• Asceticism involves leading extremely simple lives and denying pleasure

• Meditation helps individuals concentrate on the nature of Brahman

• Upanishads' religious views align with the social order of the late Vedic age

• Doctrines of samsara and karma reinforce the Vedic social order

• Samsara and karma explain why individuals are born into their castes and encourage caste duties

• Upanishads seek ultimate truth and certain knowledge in an ideal world beyond our own

• Observance of caste duties is called for in the Upanishads

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• The Upanishads promoted high ethical standards

  • Discouraged greed, envy, gluttony, and vice

  • Encouraged honesty, self-control, charity, and mercy

  • Cultivation of personal integrity and self-knowledge

  • Respect for all living things, including animals

  • Vegetarian diet became common among ascetics