Classical Theories of Crime: Anomie and Strain

Emile Durkheim

Emile Durkheim (1858-1916) is a foundational figure in sociology who introduced several theories regarding societal behavior and its implications for crime. His dissertation, titled The Division of Labour in Society, emphasizes the importance of the collective conscience in maintaining societal order.

Collective Conscience

The collective conscience refers to the set of shared beliefs and values that bind a society together. Durkheim's work highlighted the concept of a weak collective conscience, which is thought to contribute to increased levels of crime.

Assumptions of Crime as Normal

Crime is considered a normal aspect of society, which suggests that it fulfills necessary social functions.
Anomie, described by Durkheim as “normlessness,” arises when there is a breakdown in social norms and values, leading to confusion regarding what behaviors are acceptable.

Four Types of Suicide

Durkheim identified four categories of suicide, each corresponding to different levels of social integration and regulation:

Egoistic Suicide: Occurs in individuals with low integration and lacks social ties.
Altruistic Suicide: Results from excessive integration, where individuals place the group’s needs above their own.
Anomic Suicide: Associated with a deficiency in regulation, often linked to societal upheaval or change.
Fatalistic Suicide: Happens under conditions of high regulation and an overwhelming number of rules, where individuals feel trapped.

Theoretical Ties

Durkheim's theories notably connect to other criminological concepts such as:

Social Disorganization Theory: Suggests that crime is a result of the breakdown of social institutions and community structure.
Merton’s Theory of Anomie: Explores how societal pressures can lead individuals to turn to crime when they cannot achieve culturally approved goals through legitimate means.

Merton’s Strain Theory

Merton's Strain Theory is regarded as one of the most referenced theories in criminology. The fundamental emphasis is on how societal pressures can lead to frustration, which may ultimately manifest in criminal behavior.

Key Points of Merton’s Theory

Ideal Society: A well-balanced society that provides equal emphasis on goals and the means to achieve them.
Anomie: Recognized as a negative state affecting social norms.

Modes of Adaptation

Conformity: Individuals accept both societal goals and the means to achieve them.
Ritualism: Individuals reject societal goals but accept the means, often resulting in lower risk of offending.
Rebellion: Those who reject both the goals and means of society, actively seeking to change or overthrow existing societal structures.

Cohen's Theory of Lower Class Status Frustration

Cohen’s thesis focuses on how lower-class youth experience frustration due to their inability to meet the expectations set by middle-class norms and values, referred to as the “middle-class measuring rod.”

Responses to Frustration

Corner Boy: Accepts their status and navigates life passively.
Delinquent Boy: Rebellion against the system, engaging in delinquent behaviors as forms of protest.

Cloward and Ohlin’s Theory of Differential Opportunity

Cloward and Ohlin’s theory posits that access to illegitimate means (criminal opportunities) is also stratified in society, leading to:

Criminal Gangs: Typically engaged in property or economic crimes.
Conflict Gangs: Primarily involved in violent crime, stemming from a lack of legitimate opportunities.

Social Process Theories

Micro-Sociological Perspective

Social Process Theories focus on the individual level, contrasting with broader social structural theories that analyze the structure of society and neighborhoods (macro-level).

Sutherland’s Theory of Differential Association

Sutherland's theory consists of nine principles, with one of the key principles (Number 6) stating: "A person becomes delinquent because of an excess of definitions favorable to violation of the law over definitions unfavorable to the violation of the law." This principle of differential association underlines that criminal behavior is learned through social interaction rather than mere exposure to media.

Key Aspects of Sutherland’s Theory

Criminal behavior is learned, indicating that it cannot be learned through passive observation, such as through movies or literature.

Techniques of Neutralization by Sykes and Matza

This perspective outlines ways individuals justify or rationalize deviant behavior, including the following methods:

Appeal to Higher Loyalties: Where societal rules take a back seat to loyalties towards a group.

Aker’s Social Learning Theory

Aker's theory includes four main concepts:

Differential Association - the process of learning criminal behavior through interaction with others.
Definitions - normative attitudes that either promote or discourage criminal behavior.
Differential Reinforcement - the balance of anticipated or actual rewards and punishments following behaviors.
Imitation - adopting behaviors observed in others, often prominent in a group context.

Labeling and Critical Theories

Labeling Theory

Labeling Theory, or Social Reaction Theory, shifts focus from the offender as the starting point of study to understanding the societal reactions to the act of deviance.

Primary and Secondary Deviance

Primary Deviance: Involves individual or situational reasons for deviance that are not serious or violent; individuals do not see themselves as criminals.
Secondary Deviance: Arises when individuals adopt the identity of a deviant, leading to continuous offending behavior.

Consequences of Labeling

Getting Caught and Labeled: The process of being caught escalates into a label that individuals cannot dissociate from, increasingly tying them to deviant behaviors.

Policy Implications of Labeling Theory

Discussion of practical policies stemming from Labeling Theory includes:

Diversion: Redirecting offenders away from traditional judicial processes.
Decriminalization: Reassessing laws to prevent stigmatization from criminal labels.
Deinstitutionalization: Moving away from institutionalization of minor offenders.

Critical Theories

Critical theories argue that crime is a construct influenced by values and interests within society.

Conflict Theories

Conflict theories emphasize that societies are divided by class struggles and conflicts, leading to crime as a product of these divisions.

Sellin’s Culture Conflict Theory

Sellin focuses on 'conduct norms' and indicates a positive relationship between societal complexity and cultural conflict, stating that differing norms across cultures can lead to misunderstandings and criminal activities.

Vold’s Group Conflict Theory

This theory posits that crime arises from conflicts between various interest groups within society due to competition, conflicting values, and norms.

Marxist Perspectives

The Marxist approach highlights the struggles faced by the lower and working class, identifying the lowest group, referred to as the lumpenproletariat, as a reserve army of labor susceptible to criminal behavior due to systemic oppression.

Contemporary Theorizing in Crime

Rational Choice Theory

This theory posits that individuals make rational choices when deciding to commit crimes, weighing the costs versus the benefits in a calculated manner.

Routine Activities Theory

This theory suggests that crime occurs in the presence of three essential elements: a motivated offender, a suitable target, and the absence of capable guardianship.

Contemporary Strain Theories

General Strain Theory

General Strain Theory expands on traditional strain theories by emphasizing a broader range of stressors that can lead to criminal behavior rather than just economic factors.

Institutional Anomie Theory

Focuses on how social institutions can undermine social norms and contribute to crime rates by promoting a culture of individualism and economic success over communal values.

Control Theories

Hirschi and Gottfredson: General Theory of Crime

The General Theory of Crime postulates that low self-control is the primary factor contributing to criminal behavior, suggesting that individuals with low self-control are more likely to engage in criminal activities.

Cullen’s Theory of Social Support and Crime

Cullen’s work suggests shared themes where social support can mitigate crime rates by fostering strong community ties and encouraging prosocial behavior among individuals.