uk & the eu

how it all started:

  • began in 1952 as the European Coal and Steel Community

    • inc france, w germany, italy, belgium, the netherlands and luxembourg

  • established a body that was supranational (a body or organisation that has authority over and above national govts)

treaty of rome (1957):

  • og 6 members became the european economic community (ecc)

  • developed a common agricultural policy (cap) in 1962 and then an internal customs’ union in 1968

england joins!

  • in 1973, the ecc allowed new members to join

  • uk held referendum to join

  • the tories, inc maggie t campaign, campaigned to join

  • uk, ireland n denmark joined

  • others followed

further integration:

  • 1985: single european act » created a single european market, governed by common rules n regulations

  • 1992: maastricht treaty » ecc became eu and proposed single currency and greater political union

  • these moves towards federalism alarmed many on the tory benches + few labour

  • press became more anti-eu - “up yours delors” and save ‘bendy bananas’

further treaties:

  • 1997: amsterdam treaty - established an area of freedom, security and justice

  • 1999: euro became official currency of 11 member states (not uk)

  • 2001: nice treaty - established a european security and defence policy

black wednesday:

  • In 1992, the government under Major and Chancellor Norman Lamont, tried to join the Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM), a precursor to joining the Euro. Millions wiped off the pound. UK never entered Eurozone.

lisbon treaty:

  • in 2007: attempted to introduce formal constitution - rejected in referendums in france n netherlands

  • 2009: lisbon treaty - codified propsals in rejected constituions for member states which didn’t hold referendums

  • also inc article 50

a difficult relationship:

  • The relationship between the UK and the EU has always been tricky​

  • More agreement on trade links. A way to ease trade and secure economic security. Conservatives traditionally in favour of free trade policies​

  • 1973, Ted Heath’s conservatives joined BUT Labour won election. Held referendum on entry. Vote yes.​

  • However, idea of increased federalism a big issue for UK​

why is european integration such an issue?

  • There are several factors which make the UK more sceptical of EU integration​

  • Geographical – an island. Feels separate to Europe, even though only 20 odd miles of sea divide UK and France. ‘Little Englander’​

  • The World Wars. Many – often Conservatives – hark back to the UK as a global superpower, one that had a huge Empire and which faced down the Nazi threat.​

  • Politicians in 1970s and 1980s remembered WW2. Thatcher personally didn’t like Germany and France and preferred countries that spoke English as their first language​

  • Close ties to USA. The transatlantic alliance. In many ways, UK feels greater kinship with America, close relationship between Thatcher and Reagan, Blair and Clinton/Bush​

  • An entrenched right wing press that is often anti-EU​

  • Rise of fringe parties campaigning on anti-EU issues (Ukip)

the aims of the eu:

  • core aims of the eu set out in the Maastricht Treaty

  • promoting peace n the eu’s values

  • establishing a single european market

  • developing cohesion between member states on economic, social n territorial issues

  • creating a monetary union (euro)

  • establishing an area of freedom, security n justice within internal frontiers

  • fighting discrimination and promoting equality

how far has the eu achieved its aims?

  • political aims

    • spread of liberal democracy via ECHR in EU

    • post-USSR stability wanes

    • rise of authoritarian leaders: Putin, Erdogan, Orban

    • anti-LGBT laws in Hungary, Poland

    • relative peace within EU

    • however, Ukraine crisis threatens EU involvement

    • EU lacks military, relies on sanctions against Putin

  • economic policies

    • increase in economic cohesion - joint regulations n rules

    • euro est in 1999 » facilitates trade but loss of sovereignty if adopted

    • 2008 financial crash, eu had to ball out floundering economies eg greece

    • uk, denmark n sweden didn’t adopt euro

  • social policies

    • EU standardises workers' rights

    • European Court of Justice reinforces EU Charter of Fundamental Rights

    • EU lacks power to enforce compliance on member states

    • Eastern countries witness rise in social conservatism

    • Brexit partly driven by social conservatism in Britain

the 4 freedoms:

  • free movement of goods » goods produced in one part of eu can be freely sold in another

  • free movement of services » no barriers to services like financial advertising

  • free movement of people » no restrictions on eu citizens going to any other eu country

  • free movement of capital » money can move freely across the eu

the 3rd freedom was dominant issue of leave campaign in uk

the institutions of the eu:

  • the european commission: the civil service of the eu

  • the council of ministers: legally sovereign bodies of the eu, making laws on areas like transport of finance

  • the european council: heads of member states who agree and ratify new laws

  • the european parliament: countries elect meps (farage was one for years !!)

  • the european court of justice: the highest court of appeal. deals with disputes between member states

role of eu in policy-making:

  • competency: the legal authority to act in a given policy area (in eu's case, granted by treaties)

  • exclusive competencies: areas of policy only eu can make policy on

  • shared competencies: eu has priority but if it doesn’t member state can

  • supporting competencies: eu can only co-ordinate and help, not make laws

  • exclusive member-state competencies: eu can play no role

eu has sliding scale of authority

the impact of eu policies on the uk:

  • the uk media has portrayed the eu as being bureaucratic n dogmatic, imposing silly rules on theuk eg outlawing bendy bananas

  • however, the eu has given millions to help regenerate low-income parts of the uk such as cornwall and wales n the johnson govt’s promise to match this has proven false

key examples of impact:

  • Common Fisheries Policy: UK fishermen strongly oppose, equal access to member waters

    • Concerns over harm to UK fish stocks, areas impacted voted Leave

  • Common Agricultural Policy: 38% of EU budget, subsidies protect farming

    • UK perception of subsidising other countries' farming failures

  • Social Chapter: impacts workers' rights, viewed as hindrance to UK competitiveness

  • Immigration Policy: significant concern, perception of strain on NHS

    • EU nationals contribute more to NHS than they take out on average

brexit:

  • David Cameron promised in the 2015 Conservative manifesto to offer a vote on staying in the EU​

  • Cameron was a Remainer (wanted UK to stay in EU) but Conservatives riven by arguments over Europe and had been since Thatcher turned anti-EU in the late 1980s​

  • Big wing of Eurosceptics – which would become known as Brexiteers (from British exit)​

  • Also growth of right-wing Ukip and then the Brexit party. Nigel Farage. Taking votes from Conservatives​

  • Cameron believed giving a referendum would draw a line under the issue. Public would vote to stay, the leave argument would end​

enter: boris!

  • Organised campaign influenced Leave vote

  • Vote Leave led by Aaron Banks, with Dominic Cummings' input

  • Putin viewed Brexit as foreign policy aim to divide Europe

  • Suspected Russian involvement in Brexit

  • Opposition to EU rules on tax havens by UK financiers and media moguls

  • Boris Johnson wrote articles both for and against leaving EU

  • Johnson became Leave figurehead after consultation with backers, including some Russian

  • Donald Trump supported Brexit during his presidential campaign

the campaign:

  • Cameron allowed Cabinet members to campaign freely in referendum (collective responsibility suspended)

  • Johnson and Gove campaigned for Leave, with Cummings' involvement

  • Farage contributed by stoking fears of Turkey joining EU and immigration concerns

  • Leave campaign focused on "Take Back Control" slogan

  • Remain argument complex, Cameron's prior criticism of EU complicated it

  • Mention of the infamous bus slogan

britain votes: 52% leave, 48% remain:

  • Surprise victory for Leave side

  • Cameron resigns post-referendum

  • Theresa May succeeds Cameron as PM after leadership campaign

  • Johnson initially didn't expect Leave victory, hoped for future leadership

  • Gove's public turning against Johnson thwarts his leadership ambitions

  • May forms Cabinet with both Leavers and Remainers

  • Johnson appointed Foreign Secretary

  • Other prominent Leavers like David Davis and Priti Patel also in Cabinet

turbulent teresa time:

  • Party unity challenge after referendum

  • May's 2017 election decision worsens division

  • "Strong and stable" campaign backfires, reduces Tory majority

  • ERG, including Baker and Rees-Mogg, opposes May's deal

  • ERG advocates hard Brexit, against customs union, free movement, ECJ power

brinkmanship:

  • May's failure leads to Johnson becoming PM

  • Johnson delays Brexit deal

  • Parliament prorogued to avoid scrutiny

  • Labour votes with Conservatives on Johnson's deal

  • Johnson calls 2019 election with "Get Brexit Done" slogan

  • Johnson secures 80-seat majority

  • Brexit complicates EU dealings

impact of brexit:

  • Constitutional impact significant: no longer under EU laws, potential to leave ECHR

  • Economic consequences severe: double the impact of COVID, loss of European business

    • New trade deals only partially offsetting losses

    • Government's levelling up fund insufficient compared to EU subsidies

    • Small businesses facing closures

    • Brexit, COVID, and Ukraine conflict contribute to 30-year high inflation

political impact of brexit:

  • Strained relations with EU evident

  • Irish border issues strain relations with Biden

  • Calls for Scottish independence rise

  • Northern Ireland sees Republican majority

  • Red Wall constituencies support Brexit

  • Brexit reveals deep societal divisions

  • Conservative Cabinet tilts rightward, purging Cameron allies

  • Rise in populist policies, like immigrants to Rwanda

  • Labour and media avoid discussing Brexit's effects

  • Slow progress in individual trade deals

  • Concerns over food standards decline and worker rights

  • Uncertainty over UK's involvement in ECHR

possible essay q:

“evaluate the extent the eu impacted the political system of the uk prior to 2020.”

  • raises profile of the uk amongst member states and has allowed mutual political partnerships

  • the participation in the eu was the root of many divides over whether the uk should remain in it or not