Linguistics and Language Study Notes

Definition: The study of style and choice of words in writing.
Syntax: Arrangement of words following grammatical rules for clarity.
Morphology: Study of internal composition of words, including suffixes and prefixes.
- Example: 'hopeless' vs. 'hopeful'. Both are adjectives but antonyms.
- Example: 'kind' (adjective) and 'kindness' (noun) both share a meaning despite differing forms.
Contronym: Words with contradictory meanings.
- Example: 'sanction' can mean both permission and penalty.

Definition: The evolution of word meanings over time from the original sense to new meanings.
Example: The word 'guy' used to refer to Guy Fawkes is now gender-neutral.
Types of Semantic Change:
Widening: Expansion of a word's meanings.
- Example: 'holiday' originally meant a holy day but now includes general vacations.
Narrowing: Restricting a word's meaning.
- Example: 'hound' once referred to any dog but now specifically means a dog bred for hunting.
Amelioration: Positive shift in meaning.
- Example: 'nice' has evolved from negative to positive connotations over centuries.
Pejoration: Negative shift in meaning.
- Example: 'silly' once meant happy or fortunate but now implies foolishness.
Metaphorization: Change from literal to metaphorical meanings.
- Example: 'desktop' originally referred to the top of a desk but now refers to computers.
Metonymization: Associating a word with a characteristic rather than a direct definition.
- Example: 'ride' in American English can refer to a car.

Definition: Study of how language is used in context, influencing meaning and action.
Focus: Understanding how context changes the interpretation of language.

Definition: Study of phonological, grammatical, and semantic changes in languages over time.
Goal: To reconstruct earlier language stages and investigate language relationships.

Definition: Mistakenly believing that a word's oldest meaning is its only true meaning.

Definition: Expressions used in a non-literal way to convey meanings beyond the ordinary.
Metaphor: Comparison without using 'like' or 'as'.
- Example: "Brad Pitt is a shining star."
Hyperbole: Exaggeration for emphasis.
- Example: "Costs an arm and a leg."
Understatement: Downplaying a situation's significance.
- Example: "Just some wall cracks" when referring to a collapsed building.
Euphemism: A softer expression for something harsh.
- Example: "Involuntary job separation" for being fired.
Allusion: Reference to something else.
- Example: "Achilles' heel" used to denote a weakness.
Circumlocution: Indirect or roundabout expression.
- Example: Describing a blatant lie in a convoluted way.
Litotes: Understatement using negation.
- Example: "Not that difficult" vs. "Quite easy."
Metonymy: Substituting a word with something closely associated.
- Example: "Crown" for a monarchy.
Onomatopoeia: Words that imitate sounds.
- Example: "Clap" for the sound of hands.
Oxymoron: Combining contradictory terms.
- Example: "Doubtful certainty."
Pleonasm: Use of unnecessary words.
- Example: "Free gift" is redundant.
Synecdoche: Referring to a part to signify the whole.
- Example: "Hired hands" refers to workers.
Anthropomorphism: Giving human traits to non-human entities.
- Example: Talking animals in fables.

Definition: Psychological patterns that dictate expected behaviors in certain situations.
Example: A sequence of actions when dining in a restaurant, from entry to payment.
Significance: Scripts provide an understanding of common human actions, though they may vary in different cultures or contexts.