Pragmatics and Language Use Study Notes

Pragmatics

  • Definition: Pragmatics is the study of the ways people use language in actual conversation.

    • Focus on the relationship between context and meaning.

    • Investigates how context affects the appropriateness and meaning of utterances.

Key Concepts

Utterance

  • Definition: An utterance occurs when a sentence is used in speech or sign.

    • Not an abstraction; context affects meaning.

    • Example: A computer plays a sentence multiple times, yielding different meanings based on the context.

    • Identification: Can typically be found in text marked with quotation marks.

    • Common properties include deixis (time, place, person, discourse).

Sentence

  • Definition: A sentence is a phrasal expression that conveys complete ideas.

    • Viewed as abstract entities and can usually be found in italicized text.

Context

Importance of Context

  • Context significantly alters the meaning of utterances.

    • Example: Deictic words such as "there" and "here" depend heavily on context for meaning.

    • Understanding shared knowledge is crucial for accurate interpretation.

Types of Context

  1. Linguistic Context

    • Refers to preceding discourse relevant to the current utterance.

    • Example: The meaning of "Yes" varies depending on the question asked.

  2. Situational Context

    • Describes the environment or situation where an utterance occurs.

    • Often relies on common knowledge; e.g., referring to a goat passing in a classroom.

  3. Social Context

    • Involves the relationships and roles between speakers.

    • Example: Commands from a coach to players versus players responding to a coach.

Felicity

  • Definition: Appropriateness of utterances relative to context.

    • Example:

    • (a) "What do you do for a living?" (Felicious)

    • (b) "I have a job" (Infelicious).

  • Felicity is a property of utterances highlighting context relevance.

Conversational Principles

Cooperative Principle

  • Fundamental assumption in conversation where speakers aim to contribute effectively.

Maxims of Conversation

  1. Maxim of Quality: Convey truthfulness.

    • Do not say things you believe to be false.

    • Do not present claims lacking adequate evidence.

  2. Maxim of Relevance: Ensure conversation remains relevant.

    • Example: "Is Jamie dating anyone?" -> "Well, she goes to Cleveland every weekend."

  3. Maxim of Quantity: Provide appropriate information.

    • a) Be informative.

    • b) Avoid giving more information than necessary.

  4. Maxim of Manner: Clarity in communication.

    • a) Avoid obscurity.

    • b) Avoid ambiguity.

    • c) Be brief and orderly.

Flouting of Maxims

  • Refers to the deliberate violation of maxims to convey indirect meaning.

    • Example: A: "I'm going to be president of the UK." B: "Well, I'm Queen of England then."

Drawing Conclusions from Utterances

  • Essential to understand the implications and conclusions drawn from utterances.

Types of Reasoning

  1. Entailment

    • Indicates commitments from the speaker's perspective based on literal meaning.

    • Example:

      • X: "Ian eats breakfast every day."

      • Y: "Ian eats breakfast on Monday." (Y is entailed by X)

  2. Inference

    • Reasonably drawn conclusions from circumstances.

  3. Implicatures

    • Conclusions drawn regarding meaning using conversational context.

    • Example:

      • Speaker 1: "I’d really like a cup of coffee."

      • Speaker 2: "There’s a place around the corner called Joe’s."

    • X implies Y without entailing it directly.

Speech Acts

  • Definition: Language used for various activities (e.g., requests, assertions).

Functions of Speech Acts

  1. Assertion: Conveys information.

  2. Question: Elicits information.

  3. Request: Elicits action/information.

  4. Order: Demands action.

  5. Promise: Commits the speaker to an action.

  6. Threat: Binds speaker to an unwanted action.

Felicity Conditions

  • The conditions that must be met for a speech act to be considered appropriate.

    • For requests: Document the speaker's belief of action's status, desire for action, ability, and willingness of the hearer.

    • For questions: Speaker's ignorance about information desired and the belief that the hearer can provide it.

Performative Verbs

  • Verbs that signify linguistic actions (e.g., request, promise).

  • Performative Speech Acts: Action completed by speaking the act (e.g., "I hereby pronounce you husband and wife.").

Direct vs. Indirect Speech Acts

  • Direct Speech Acts: Functions are clear and literal.

  • Indirect Speech Acts: The literal meaning differs from the speaker's actual intent (e.g., requests framed as questions).

Types of Sentences

  1. Declaratives: Assert information.

  2. Interrogatives: Request information.

  3. Imperatives: Demand action or order someone to act.

Implicit Assumptions

  • Presupposition: Underlying assumptions necessary for an utterance to be meaningful.

  • Types of Presupposition:

    • Presupposition of existence: Recognizing entities must exist for truth value.

    • Triggers: Specific words that indicate presupposition (e.g., previous mentions in a narrative).

Cohesion in Text

  • Definition: The links connecting different parts of texts.

    • Use of references (anaphoric and cataphoric) to establish connections.

    • Anaphoric Reference: Refers back to previously mentioned items.

    • Cataphoric Reference: Refers forward, requiring later context to clarify.

    • Exophoric Reference: References items external to the text context.

Types of References

  1. Personal Reference: Refers to people.

  2. Demonstrative Reference: Indicates items based on proximity (e.g., "this", "that").

  3. Comparative References: Interprets sections of text by comparison.

Lexical Cohesion

  • Definition: The use of word meanings to create links in text.

    • Example: Words like "farm, cow and duck" become coherent in context.

Morphology and Language Structure

Definition of Morphology

  • Study of Morphemes: The smallest units of meaning in language.

    • Includes the denotation (literal meaning) and connotation (emotional/associative meaning).

Types of Words

  1. Content Words: Carry meaning (e.g., nouns, verbs).

  2. Function Words: Serve grammatical purposes (e.g., articles, prepositions).

  3. Open-Class Words: Allow new members (e.g., nouns, adjectives).

  4. Closed-Class Words: Fixed membership; rare additions (e.g., prepositions).

Language Variation and Community

Sociolinguistics

  • Definition: The study of language in relation to social factors (e.g., ethnicity, class).

  • Idiolect: An individual's distinct form of speech within a language.

  • Speech Community: A collective engaging in shared communicative behavior.

Types of English Varieties

  1. Standard American English (SAE): Common form used in professional and media contexts.

  2. Prestige Dialect: Language spoken by socially high-status individuals.

  3. African American English (AAE): Varieties spoken within African American communities, featuring unique phonological traits.

Pidgins and Creoles

Definitions

  • Pidgin: Simplified languages created for communication between speakers of different languages.

  • Creole: Evolved pidgin adopted as a first language by future generations.

Terms Associated with Pidgins and Creoles

  • Superstrate: Dominant language influence in a pidgin.

  • Substrate: Native language influencing a pidgin by retaining syntax.

  • Nativisation: When a pidgin becomes a native language in a community.

Registers and Language Use

Register Types

  • Definition: Language variation based on situational appropriateness and formality.

    • Examples include formal, casual, jargon-laden speech based on audience.and

Attributes of Registers

  1. Field: Topic of discussion.

  2. Tenor: Social relationships of speakers.

  3. Mode: Form of presentation (spoken, written).

Functionality in Communication

  • Indirect Language: Used to convey politeness; prevalent in women's speech patterns.

  • Tag Questions: Questions added to statements to engage recipients (e.g., "isn't it?").

Exam Information

  • Focus on key concepts such as performative speech acts, ideational metafunction, pidgin and creole language structures.