Christian Scriptures Exam Review
Fundamental Terminology and the Structure of Scripture
The study of Christian Scriptures begins with the concept of the Canon, defined as a specific collection of texts. These texts are considered Scripture because they function as normative within the context of a particular faith and religion. The Christian Bible is traditionally divided into the Hebrew Bible (HB) or Old Testament (OT) and the New Testament (NT). The Hebrew Bible consists of three distinct parts: the Torah, the Prophets, and the Writings. The Torah, also known as the Pentateuch, contains the first books of the Bible, from Genesis to Deuteronomy. The Prophets are subdivided into the Former Prophets, spanning Joshua to Kings (excluding the book of Ruth), and the Latter Prophets, which include Isaiah through Malachi. The category of Writings encompasses all other texts, such as Ruth, Esther, Daniel, Psalms, and Chronicles. Additionally, Deuterocanonical Books refer to those texts that were left out of some Hebrew or Old Testament canons. The New Testament is primarily divided into two parts: the Gospels and the Epistles. The Gospels include Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John, while the Book of Acts, though not a Gospel, is frequently attached to this section. The Epistles include the Pauline Epistles (such as Romans, Galatians, and Philippians) and the General or Catholic Epistles (such as Peter, John, and Jude).
Textual study relies on Manuscripts, which are copies of copies of biblical texts, as the original Autograph (the theoretical first written version) no longer exists. Before written preservation, many stories, laws, and poems were shared through Oral Transmission. The Dead Sea Scrolls (DSS) represent a major archaeological find, as they are the oldest Hebrew manuscripts in existence today by a significant margin.
Genesis: Primeval History and Ancestral Narratives
The book of Genesis, whose name comes from the Greek word meaning "beginning," is structured into two main sections: Primeval History and Ancestral Narratives. Primeval History covers foundational events such as the Creation, the Flood, and the Tower of Babel. It features Adam and Eve, the first man and woman, and their sons Cain and Abel. In the story of the siblings, God prefers Abel's offering, leading Cain to murder his brother. This section also includes the story of Noah, who survived a global flood by building a divinely-inspired ark. Following the flood, God established the Noahic Covenant, an unconditional promise between the Creator and all creation never to destroy the earth by flood again. Many of these stories serve as Etiology, which is a narration explaining the origin of a specific aspect of reality. Genealogies are also prominent, providing records of descendants that typically focus on males and firstborn sons.
The Ancestral Narratives focus on the figures of Abraham (originally Abram) and Sarah (originally Sarai), the foundational couple chosen by God to start a great nation. The Abrahamic Covenant is an unconditional agreement in which God promises her descendants, blessings, and acclaim. Throughout these narratives, God often appears via a Theophany, a tangible manifestation of divine presence such as fire, clouds, or thunder. The narrative continues through Isaac and his wife Rebekah, and then to Jacob (later renamed Israel). Jacob married sisters Leah and Rachel and fathered many children, including Joseph. Joseph, the favorite son of Jacob, was sold into slavery in Egypt by his jealous brothers, an event that eventually brought the entire family to Egypt.
The Exodus, Mount Sinai, and the Formation of Israel
The narrative transition to the book of Exodus centers on Moses, who flees to Midian after killing a slave-driver. He is called by God in a Call Narrative to lead the Israelites out of Egypt. At Mt. Sinai (also known as Horeb), which is described as the most important locale of the Israelites' wilderness travels, God establishes the Mosaic Covenant. Unlike previous covenants, this is a conditional covenant: if Israel obeys God's voice, they will become a "priestly kingdom and a holy people." A core component of this relationship is the Decalogue, or the Ten Commandments, which provide fundamental instructions for maintaining a positive relationship with God. The Pentateuch concludes with Leviticus, which focuses on worship and law, Numbers, which details the year journey from Mt. Sinai to the promised land, and Deuteronomy, which serves as the finale to the first books. Central to Israelite worship during this time was the Ark of the Covenant, a sacred gold-covered wooden chest built to store the Ten Commandments. Responsibility for rituals and laws fell to the Priest, an ordained leader in worship and festivals.
Scholarly Methods and Critical Analysis of Biblical Texts
Modern biblical scholarship employs various analytical methods to understand the development of the text. Source Criticism analyzes texts to determine the written precursors used in their compilation. A prominent example is the Documentary Hypothesis (JEDP), which suggests the Pentateuch derived from four distinct written sources. Redaction Criticism focuses on the editorial layers of a text to discern its historical development over time. Narrative Criticism examines literary elements such as plot development, characterization, and point of view. Form Criticism categorizes texts based on formal patterns and structures, helping to identify the Genre (the formal category of literary style).
Additional interdisciplinary approaches include Postcolonial Studies, which looks at the negotiations between imperial realities and indigenous identities, focusing on concepts like Colonial Mimicry (reframing imperial propaganda as ideological resistance). Trauma Studies explores how texts originate from or portray traumatic circumstances, while Resilience Studies examines how texts encourage or derive from human resilience. Finally, Canonical Criticism looks at the final form of the biblical canon, considering topics in light of the entire sweep of scripture as a process of Meaning-making.
The Former Prophets: From Joshua to the Divided Monarchy
The Former Prophets, often referred to as the Deuteronomistic History (DtrH), reflect the themes of the book of Deuteronomy. This history begins with the book of Joshua, which tells how God brought Israel into Canaan, the promised land, following the death of Moses. Joshua himself was the chosen successor to Moses. Scholars debate the nature of Israelite occupation of the land, proposing theories of military invasion, peaceful infiltration, or a peasant revolt. Following Joshua, the book of Judges describes a period when Israel had no king and repeatedly fell into the Judges Cycle: Apostasy, Oppression, Outcry, and Deliverance. Judges were regional military and political leaders.
The transition to kingship is recorded in Samuel. Samuel, the child of Hannah, grew up in the presence of YHWH and served as a priest, prophet, and judge. A Prophet is defined as a figure who interprets or communicates the will of a deity. The first king was Saul, who eventually disobeyed God and devolved into seeking David's life and consulting the dead. The United Monarchy followed, where all tribes were united under a single king. David, a former shepherd boy, became the greatest king of Israel. Under the Davidic Covenant, God made an unconditional promise regarding the security of David’s dynasty. David's son Solomon became king after Bathsheba used her voice to establish him as the successor. Solomon was known for his wisdom and for building the first Jerusalem Temple, which reinforced Jerusalem as the center of YHWH worship.
The Late Kingdom and the Babylonian Exile
Following Solomon's reign, the Divided Monarchy began. The seceded northern tribes formed the Kingdom of Israel, with its capital at Samaria. Notable figures include King Ahab and his wife Jezebel, who worshiped Baal and oppressed the people. During this time, the prophets Elijah (known for fire and judgment) and Elisha (known for miracles) were active. The Kingdom of Israel fell in due to an Assyrian invasion, leading to the capture of Samaria and the deportation of the Israelites.
The Southern Kingdom remained as the Kingdom of Judah. One of its kings, Manasseh, was so evil that the biblical record blames him for the eventual exile. Conversely, King Josiah led wide-ranging religious reforms after a "Book of the Law" (an early version of Deuteronomy) was found in the temple and authenticated by Huldah. Despite these reforms, the Kingdom of Judah fell in when the Babylonians destroyed Jerusalem and Solomon's Temple. This led to the Babylonian Exile, a historical catalyst for the writing and canonization of the Torah, the Prophets, and many Psalms. The Babylonian exile ended when Cyrus, the Persian liberator and the only non-Israelite "messiah" in the Old Testament, allowed the people to return. Figures like Ezra, a priest and scribe, and Nehemiah, a governing leader, oversaw the rebuilding of Jerusalem and religious reforms in the post-exilic period known as Yehud. This period also marks the beginning of the Diaspora, the scattering of Jewish peoples beyond their homeland.
The Latter Prophets: Oracles and Divine Messaging
The Latter Prophets consist of anthologies of Oracles, which are short poetic speeches communicating divine words. A central theme is Retributive Justice—the principle that YHWH's response to Israel corresponds to their conduct. Isaiah warned the kingdom of Judah of sins and predicted punishment by foreign nations, though also offering promises of salvation. This involves Zion Theology, which views Jerusalem as the indestructible center of the universe. Jeremiah witnessed the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple, and his book contains traditional oracles mixed with laments. Ezekiel, who was exiled in Babylon, used visions and symbolic actions to warn of Jerusalem's destruction due to idolatry. The Book of the Twelve refers to the minor prophets compiled onto a single scroll.
The Writings: Poetry, Wisdom, and Post-Exilic Identity
The Writings include various genres, including poetry and Wisdom Literature, which is concerned with the discernment of what is known and how one should live. Psalms is a collection of books of poetry characterized by Parallelism, the structure of parallel words and lines. Proverbs contains short sayings about wise living. The book of Job explores the complexities of suffering and justice through the story of a righteous man who suffers. Ecclesiastes (also called Qoheleth) reflects on the meaning of life. Narrative books in this section include Ruth, a Moabite woman who becomes the great-grandmother of David; Esther, the queen of Persia who diverts a genocide; and Daniel, who interprets dreams in the Babylonian and Persian courts. Daniel also contains Apocalypse literature, a genre from the Greek era pertaining to celestial warfare and eschatology (the end of time).
The Hellenistic Period and the Rise of Judaism
The Greek era began with Alexander the Great, who overtook the Persian Empire, including the region of Yehud. This led to Hellenism, the spread of Greek culture. Judaism developed during this and subsequent eras, characterized by the culture of Judea and the worship of YHWH. Local worship spaces called Synagogues emerged for scripture reading and debate. Different Jewish groups formed, such as the Pharisees (teachers who emphasized oral and written Torah and aided the poor) and the Sadducees (temple personnel). In , the Romans destroyed the Second Temple due to continued unrest, and it was never rebuilt.
The New Testament: The Synoptic Gospels and the Portrait of Jesus
The word Gospel refers to "good news" and is a genre of biographical narration of the ministry of Jesus. Matthew, Mark, and Luke are known as the Synoptic Gospels because they share many accounts in common. The Two-Source Hypothesis suggests that Mark is the oldest and influenced the others. Jesus is identified as the Christ (Messiah/Anointed One) and the Son of God. The Infancy Narratives in Matthew and Luke focus on Mary and include hymns from figures like Zechariah and Simeon. Jesus' public life begins with his baptism by John the Baptist and his temptation in the wilderness. His Galilean Ministry involves teaching and miracles. This leads to his Triumphal Entry into Jerusalem, his Crucifixion under Pontius Pilate, and his Resurrection after the tomb is found empty by Mary Magdalene. Each Gospel presents a unique "portrait" of Jesus for a specific hypothesized audience. While the Synoptics use Parables (riddle-like fictional stories), the Gospel of John applies the concept of the Logos (the Greek "Word" or order of the universe) to Jesus.
Acts of the Apostles and the Spread of the Early Church
The Book of Acts details the ministry of the Apostles, those "sent" to continue Jesus' work. It begins with Pentecost (also called Shauvot or the Festival of Weeks), a harvest feast associated with the giving of the Torah. Key leaders include Peter and Paul. Paul, a devout Jew who originally persecuted Christians, became a leader after a life-changing encounter with Jesus. He embarked on a ministry to the Gentiles and helped lead the Jerusalem Council (Acts ; Galatians ) to determine if Gentiles had to follow Torah laws. Paul wrote many epistles, including Thessalonians (encouraging those waiting for Jesus' return), Galatians (arguing righteousness comes through faith, not circumcision), and Corinthians (addressing church unity). He also organized The Collection, gathering money for the poor in Jerusalem. Other major letters include Romans, Philippians, and Philemon (which involves a man named Onesimus).
Apostolic Letters and Late Canonical Works
Theological reflection in the New Testament focuses on Christology (the nature of Jesus' divinity and humanity) and Soteriology (the nature of salvation). Some later texts involve Pseudonymity, the practice of writing under a "false name." Many early Christians lived with an Immanent Eschatology, believing the Parousia (the arrival or return of Jesus) was very near. Other New Testament writings include the General/Catholic Epistles such as Hebrews and James. The canon concludes with Revelation, which is an apocalypse featuring themes of cosmic upheaval and Millenarianism, the belief in a massive social transformation ushering in an era of peace.