AP Euro Pages 579-589 U9

The Staggering Cost of Trench Warfare

High Casualties vs. Minimal Gains

Trench warfare, prominent during World War I (1914-1918), resulted in massive loss of life with minimal territorial advancement, radically shifting the landscape of warfare. Soldiers encountered horrific conditions in the trenches, characterized by muddy landscapes filled with vermin (like rats and lice), leading to severe health issues. The dire sanitary situation facilitated the spread of diseases such as dysentery and trench fever, significantly contributing to the casualty rate beyond battlefield engagements.

Enlistment and Soldier Rotation

Enlisted men typically spent two weeks in the front-line trenches, followed by two weeks in reserve, and then two weeks back at their base for rest. This grueling rotation was taxing, offering little chance for personal leave and resulting in vast correspondence as soldiers exchanged billions of letters and postcards with families back home, often sharing news of the grim realities they faced.

Living Conditions in the Trenches

Trench Life

The harsh living conditions resulted in profound psychological and physical strain on soldiers, often leading to what was known as shell shock (now recognized as PTSD). The daily routine of repairing trenches and standing guard occupied most of soldiers' time and energy, further compounding their stress.

The trench systems themselves were poorly constructed and often flooded, exacerbating issues of hygiene and contributing to the development of trench foot, a painful condition caused by prolonged exposure to wet, unsanitary conditions.

Combat Equipment and Technology

Weapons such as machine guns, poison gas (first used by Germany at Ypres in 1915), and flamethrowers not only contributed to unprecedented high casualties but also fostered an impersonal nature of battle where soldiers became mere numbers in casualty reports. Poorly executed frontal assaults, like those witnessed at the Battles of the Somme and Verdun, frequently resulted in the decimation of entire battalions, leaving many dead and wounded on the battlefields for days, further enhancing the suffering from disease and psychological trauma.

Military Strategy and Leadership Challenges

Generals' Misunderstanding of Warfare

Many generals, such as Douglas Haig (British) and Joseph Joffre (French), were entrenched in 19th-century tactical education and were slow to adapt to the grim realities of trench warfare. Their failure to secure adequate ground after massive offensives often left soldiers vulnerable and exposed to the elements, disease, and enemy fire, as seen in the British and French offensives in 1915 where they could only advance a few miles under heavy fire and heavy losses.

Major Battles

Battle of the Somme (1916)

Initiated by a week-long artillery bombardment, the Battle of the Somme aimed to weaken German defenses. On July 1, 1916, British forces experienced one of the bloodiest days in British military history, with around 20,000 deaths on the first day alone. By the battle's end in November 1916, there were approximately 420,000 British, 200,000 French, and 600,000 German soldiers affected, revealing the tragedy of attritional warfare. Despite these staggering losses, British forces gained a mere 7 miles of territory, highlighting the futility of the campaign.

Eastern Front Dynamics

Early Russian Losses

The Eastern Front initially showcased more mobile warfare, allowing for greater fluidity in troop movements. Nevertheless, it witnessed significant losses for Russia; two million soldiers were either killed, wounded, or captured during early engagements, particularly in the battles of Tannenberg and the Masurian Lakes in 1914.

German Occupation Policies

German military bureaucracy imposed harsh conditions and forced labor on occupied Russian territories, leading to widespread suffering among civilians and exacerbating the humanitarian crisis.

The Ottoman Empire and Ethnic Cleansing

Entry into the War

The Ottoman Empire joined the conflict in 1914, strengthening the Central Powers, followed by Bulgaria's entry in 1915 to bolster their allies.

Armenian Genocide (1915)

During the war, the Ottoman government initiated mass deportations of Armenians, a state-sponsored act of ethnic cleansing that resulted in the deaths of approximately one million Armenians between 1915 and 1922.

Naval Warfare and American Entry

The Role of Submarines

Germany's unrestricted submarine warfare raised tensions with neutral nations, particularly after the sinking of the RMS Lusitania in May 1915, which resulted in 128 American casualties. This act shifted U.S. public opinion against Germany, acting as a catalyst for U.S. entry into the war in April 1917.

Home Front Changes due to Total War

Mobilization for Total War

Total war required an unprecedented level of government intervention in all aspects of daily life, including rationing essential goods and imposing regulations on industrial production, including munitions and food which were crucial for sustaining the war effort.

Women's Roles

Women’s roles expanded significantly as they filled vacancies left by drafted men, taking on jobs across various sectors including munitions factories, spurring movements for gender equality.

Shifts in Gender Roles

Women’s visibility in the workforce increased dramatically during the conflict, fostering a sense of empowerment; however, post-war, many women were forced out of jobs as men returned from the front lines.

Government Control

Governments worldwide adopted measures such as censorship to maintain morale and suppress dissent, which often resulted in political unrest and public protests against the war.

Political Turmoil and Social Change

Growing Discontent

As the war ground on, increasing weariness among civilians and soldiers led to strikes advocating for better living conditions, mirroring events like the Easter Rising in Ireland (1916) that reflected the political tensions exacerbated by the war.

Russian Revolution of 1917

Collapse of the Tsarist Regime

The revolution was significantly influenced by food shortages, military losses, and political mismanagement, culminating in Tsar Nicholas II abdication in March 1917. On March 12, the Duma proclaimed a provisional government, marking the onset of revolution and social upheaval.

Initial Enthusiasm vs. Disillusionment

Although early patriotic fervor marked the beginning of the war, by 1917 the Russian populace faced immense hardships, leading to mass desertions and the eventual downfall of the imperial government, paving the way for the Bolshevik Revolution later that year.