US Consitution Notes

The Articles of Confederation were the initial framework for the American government after independence.
Established by the Continental Congress, it predated the constitutional system that began in 1788.
Characterized as a "firm league of friendship," it lacked the structure of a strong national government.
The government consisted of a one-house body of delegates, with each state holding a single vote.
There was no president or judiciary.
Decisions required nine out of 13 congressional votes, making it difficult to reach agreements.
The congress had limited powers: declaring war, conducting foreign affairs, and making treaties.
It could coin money but lacked the authority to collect taxes, which was left to the states.
Amendments to the articles required a unanimous vote, resulting in no amendments ever being passed.
The government was intentionally weak due to Americans' fears of tyrannical governments.
Weaknesses:
- The central government's inability to collect taxes was a critical flaw.
- States accumulated debt from the war and relied on tariffs, but Congress couldn't impose them.

Successfully concluded the Revolutionary War.
Developed rules for dealing with the Northwest Territory (Ohio).
Addressed land issues with Native Americans through treaties, such as those signed at Fort Stanwix and Fort McIntosh.
Passed the Northwest Ordinance of 1787, which:
- Established a process for creating five new states between the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers.
- Acknowledged American Indians' claim to the land and the need for better treatment.
- Outlawed slavery in the new states.

Farmers in Massachusetts, burdened by debt, rose up and closed the courts in 1786 and 1787.
Led by Revolutionary War veteran Daniel Shays.
The rebellion was quelled by the state militia.
Highlighted the weaknesses of the Articles government in dealing with crises.
Fueled concerns among elites that too much democratic liberty among the lower classes could threaten private property.
Increased anxieties among holders of government bonds due to the lack of tax revenue for repayment.
Thomas Jefferson's Perspective:
- He favored Shays' rebellion, stating that "a little rebellion now and then is a good thing."
- He believed that "the tree of liberty must be refreshed from time to time with the blood of patriots and tyrants."

A meeting in Annapolis in 1786 aimed to better regulate international trade led to the call for a convention in Philadelphia to revise the Articles of Confederation.
The delegates in Philadelphia decided to write a new charter of government, the Constitution.

The 55 men who met in Philadelphia were not ordinary; most were wealthy and well-educated.
Over half had college educations, which was rare at the time.
About 40% had served in the army during the war.
They shared a desire for a stronger national government.
Agreed on:
- The government should have executive, legislative, and judicial branches.
- It should be republican with representatives rather than direct democracy.

Alexander Hamilton advocated for life terms for the president and senate.
The main goal was to guard against tyranny by the government and tyranny by the people.
The electoral college was created to elect the president, rather than direct popular vote.
Conflicts arose between states with big populations and those with small populations.
The Virginia Plan (supported by large states):
- Called for a two-house legislature with representation proportional to a state's population.
The New Jersey Plan (supported by smaller states):
- Called for a single legislative house with equal representation for each state.
The Great Compromise (brokered by Roger Sherman of Connecticut):
- Two houses: the House of Representatives with representation proportional to each state's population and the Senate with two members from each state.
- House members (congressmen) served two-year terms, while senators served six-year terms with $1/3$ of them being up for election in every two-year cycle.
The Three-Fifths Compromise:
- Addressed the issue of how slaves should be counted for representation.
- The total number of white people plus three-fifths the population of other persons (slaves) would be the basis for the calculation.
- The Constitution also contained a fugitive slave clause requiring any escaped slave to be returned to their master.

Separation of powers: the government was divided into three branches—legislative, executive, and judiciary.
Checks and balances: each branch can check the power of the others.
Federalism: governmental authority rests both in the national and the state governments.
The national government is limited in scope to certain enumerated powers.
Most other powers, especially the protection of health, safety, and morals, are left to the states.

Senators were elected by the states, usually by state legislatures.
The electoral college was designed to elect a president who did not win the popular vote.

Nine out of the 13 states were required to ratify the Constitution in special conventions called for the purpose.
Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay wrote a series of 85 essays known as the Federalist Papers to convince the delegates to vote for it.

The mystery document was an excerpt for Federalist Papers, Alexander Hamilton
The whole idea of the amendment was that the people could protect themselves from a standing army by being equally well armed, which implies that citizens should have the right to buy assault rifles, unmanned drones, and suitcase nukes.