Psychology - History and Approaches

  • Psychology:- The science of behaviour and mental processes.

    • Roots trace back over 2,000 years to ancient Greece in philosophy and biology/physiology.

  • Pre-scientific Psychology:- Early philosophical and theoretical explorations on the human mind and behaviour.

  • Empirical Approach:- Evidence-based method that draws on observation and experimentation.

  • Critical Thinking:- Thinking that doesn’t blindly accept arguments and conclusions.

    • Examines assumptions, appraises the source, discerns hidden bias, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.

Foundations in Philosophy

  • Hippocrates:- Physician.

    • Thought mind or soul resided in brain but wasn’t composed of physical substance (mind-body dualism).

  • Socrates:- Used the Socratic Method for problem-solving.

    • Emphasized self-examination and pursuit of knowledge and virtue.

    • Believed the mind was separable from the body and continued after death.

  • Plato:- Student of Socrates.

    • Developed the Theory of the Soul.

    • Believed in dualism.

    • Used self-examination to conclude that who we are and what we know are innate (inborn).

    • Believed intelligence was inherited.

  • Aristotle:- Student of Plato.

    • Greek naturalist and philosopher.

    • Theorized about learning, motivation, memory, emotion, perception, personality.

    • Believed in monism — mind/soul result from anatomy and physiological processes.

    • Believed knowledge comes from experience (empiricism).

    • Mind begins as a blank slate (tabula rasa).

  • Descartes:- Proposed and defended mind-body dualism.

    • Emphasized rationalism — logic and reason to understand the world.

  • Locke:- Empirical philosopher.

    • Believed in monism — mind and body interact symmetrically.

    • Believed knowledge comes from experience — mind is a blank slate (tabula rasa).

  • Mary Whiton Calkins:- First female president of the American Psychological Association (APA).

    • Studied under William James at Harvard.

    • Developed self-psychology — reconciled structuralism and functionalism.

Psychology as a Science

  • Psychology’s First Laboratory: December 1874, small third-floor room at University of Leipzig, Germany

Early Schools of Thought

Structuralism – Wundt, Hall, Titchener

  • Wilhelm Wundt:- 1879: Established the first psychological lab (University of Leipzig).

    • Studied immediate conscious attention.

    • Used trained introspection to analyze sensory experiences.

    • Required replication of results under different conditions.

    • Identified basic elements of consciousness: sensations, feelings, and images.

  • G. Stanley Hall:- Founded APA.

    • Established U.S. psych lab at Johns Hopkins University.

    • First APA president.

  • Edward Titchener:- Brought introspection to Cornell University.

    • Analyzed consciousness into basic elements and their relationships.

    • First grad student and first woman to earn a psych PhD: Margaret Floy Washburn

Functionalism – James, Cattell, Dewey

  • William James:- Believed structuralists asked the wrong questions.

    • Studied behavioural functions.

    • Believed humans actively process sensations and actions.

    • Along with Cattell and Dewey, focused on mental testing, child development, and education.

    • Studied how mental operations help individuals adapt to their environments.

    • Coined “stream of consciousness”.

Modern Psychological Perspectives

Behaviorism:

  • Focuses on observable behaviour and environmental causes.

  • Behaviour results from learning.

  • Uses ABCs of behaviour:- Antecedent conditions

    • Behaviour

    • Consequences

  • Ivan Pavlov: Trained dogs to salivate at tone → stimulus-response learning

  • Dominated American psychology from 1920s to 1960s

Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Approach:

  • Sigmund Freud:- Opposed behaviourism

    • Talked with mental patients to uncover unconscious motives, conflicts, and defenses

    • Believed early life experiences shape personality

    • Unconscious is source of desires, thoughts, and memories

  • Influenced by Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, Karen Horney, Heinz Kohut

Humanism:

  • Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers

  • Humans are unique and growth-oriented

  • Emphasize free will and personal growth

  • View people as naturally positive and striving for self-improvement

  • Use interviews and therapy to address problems

Evolutionary Approach:

  • Based on Darwin’s theory of natural selection

  • Behaviour patterns are adaptations that increase reproductive success

Cognitive Approach:

  • Focuses on memory, thinking, reasoning, and language

  • Emphasizes how we process, store, and use information

  • Jean Piaget: Studied cognitive development in children

Cognitive Neuroscience:

  • Studies brain activity linked with cognition (e.g., memory, perception, language)

Positive Psychology:

  • Scientific study of human flourishing

  • Focuses on strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities thrive

  • Believes happiness results from a pleasant, engaged, and meaningful life

Gestalt Psychology – Wertheimer, Koffka, Köhler:

  • Emphasized perception of wholes over parts

  • Focused on how we organize sensory information into meaningful patterns

  • Opposed reducing thought and behaviour to separate structures

Sociocultural Approach:

  • Examines cultural influences on behaviour

  • Studies gestures, body language, speech patterns

  • Explores how social and environmental factors shape cultural differences in behaviour

Biopsychosocial Approach:

  • Integrates biological, psychological, and social factors

  • Provides a comprehensive view of behaviour and mental processes

Domains of Psychology

Clinical Psychologists:

  • Evaluate and treat mental, emotional, and behavioural disorders

  • Work with individuals facing crises (grief, addiction) or chronic conditions

  • May specialize by population (children, elderly) or disorder

  • Work in hospitals, private practice, community health centers

Counselling Psychologists:

  • Help people adapt to change or make life changes

  • Focus more on adjustment issues than psychological disorders

  • Found in schools, universities, clinics, private practice

Developmental Psychologists:

  • Study psychological development across the lifespan

  • Focus on intellectual, social, emotional, and moral growth

  • Some specialize in adolescents or elderly

  • Work in schools, daycare centers, social services, senior facilities

Community Psychologists:

  • Study how people interact with environments

  • Examine how institutions affect individuals and groups

Studying Techniques

Testing Effect:

  • Enhanced memory through retrieval (testing), rather than just rereading

SQ3R Method:

  • Survey

  • Question

  • Read

  • Retrieve

  • Review