Unit 1: The Science of Psychology
Learning Objectives
Describe the contributions of early schools in psychology.
Summarize the basic ideas behind modern perspectives.
Differentiate between professionals within the field of psychology.
Explain the steps of the scientific approach and its relationship with critical thinking.
Compare and contrast methods used to describe behavior.
Learning Objectives (Continued)
Explain descriptive, correlational, and experimental techniques.
Identify common ethical guidelines in research.
Explain why psychologists sometimes use animals in their research.
Definition of Psychology
Psychology: The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.
Behavior: Outward or overt actions and reactions.
Mental processes: Internal, covert activity of our minds.
Early Schools of Thought in Psychology
Structuralism
Wilhelm Wundt: Established the first laboratory in Leipzig, Germany, in 1879.
Structuralism: The school of thought that breaks down consciousness into basic elements like thoughts and emotions.
Objective introspection: A technique for measuring one’s own thoughts and mental activities objectively.
Edward Titchener: Wundt’s student who contributed to the development of structuralism.
Experiment by Wundt
Participants pushed a button when they heard a ball hit a platform.
Results: 1/10th of a second for the physical response; 2/10ths of a second for conscious awareness. This difference raised questions about the time it takes for consciousness to process stimuli.
Functionalism
William James: Advocated for functionalism, focusing on how the mind helps individuals adapt and function in their environments.
Wrote: Principles of Psychology.
Gestalt Psychology
Max Wertheimer: Founded Gestalt psychology with the principle that “The whole is more than the sum of its parts.”
Focused on studying perception and sensation, now integrated into cognitive psychology.
Psychoanalysis
Sigmund Freud: Proposed the concept of the unconscious mind which represses threatening urges and desires.
Argued that repressed urges lead to nervous disorders and emphasized early childhood experiences and sexual motivations.
Behaviorism
John B. Watson: Focused solely on observable behavior, believing that behavior must be directly seen and measured.
Influenced by Pavlov’s findings on conditioning reflexes.
Case of “Little Albert”: Demonstrated that fears could be learned through conditioning (a baby taught to fear a white rat).
Evolution of the Definition of Psychology
Wilhelm Wundt and Edward Titchener (1900): Defined psychology as “the science of mental life.”
John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner (1920s): Defined it as “the scientific study of observable behavior.”
Cognitive psychologists (1960s): Emphasized the study of internal mental processes, aided by advances in neuroscience.
Current Definition: We now define psychology as “the science of behavior and mental processes.”
The Field of Psychology Today
Seven modern perspectives in psychology:
Psychodynamic
Behavioral
Humanistic
Cognitive
Sociocultural
Biopsychological
Evolutionary
Conceptual Note: No single perspective explains all human behavior and mental processes.
Modern Perspectives Explained
Psychodynamic Perspective
A modern interpretation of psychoanalysis, focusing more on self-development and motivations beyond just sexual drives.
Behavioral Perspective
Centers on the concept of operant conditioning (developed by B.F. Skinner) which explains how voluntary behaviors are learned through reinforcement.
Significance: Behaviorism became a foundational force in the 20th century.
Humanistic Perspective
Described as the “third force” in psychology, opposing both psychoanalytic and behaviorist theories.
Emphasizes free will and the individual's freedom to choose their path and potential for self-actualization.
Founders: Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers.
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs:
Five levels of needs:
Physiological (food, water, shelter)
Safety (employment, security)
Social (family, friendships, intimacy)
Esteem (self-worth, accomplishment)
Self-actualization (achieving full potential)
Cognitive Perspective
Focuses on cognitive processes such as memory, perception, and problem-solving.
Includes cognitive neuroscience: the study of brain changes during thought processes and learning.
Example: Piaget’s theory of cognitive development.
Sociocultural Perspective
Examines how social behavior and cultural norms interact.
Encompasses social psychology (group dynamics) and cultural psychology (values and expectations).
Emphasizes the importance of cross-cultural research.
Biopsychological Perspective
Attributes behaviors to biological factors such as genetics, hormones, and nervous system activity.
Evolutionary Perspective
Looks at universal mental characteristics in humans and considers the adaptive value of behaviors for survival.
Understanding Different Perspectives of Illness
Example: Various interpretations of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) reveal different perspectives in psychology relating to brain structure, childhood experiences, operant conditioning, instincts, and reactions to modern lifestyles.
Psychological Professionals
Psychologists:
Hold academic degrees in psychology and may specialize in fields such as clinical, counseling, developmental, or social psychology.
Engaged in basic or applied research.
Psychiatrists:
Medical doctors (M.D. or D.O.) who can prescribe medication.
Includes professionals in social work, counseling, and marriage and family therapy, who are also trained in psychotherapy.
Work Settings and Subfields of Psychology
Distribution of Psychologists:
University/4-Year College: 25.9%
Medical Centers/Government: 16.3%
Independent Practice: 8.1%
Counseling: 8.0%
Clinical: 42.0%
Developmental & Child: 1.0%
Experimental: 2.0%
Industrial/Organizational: 3.0%
Educational: 8.0%
Social: 1.0%
Hospital/Other Health Service: 25.0%
Scientific Reasoning and Critical Thinking
Psychology focuses on determining facts, reducing uncertainty, and applying scientific thinking.
Interconnected with critical thinking—making reasoned judgments about claims.
Basic Criteria of Critical Thinking
Most “truths” should be subjected to testing.
Not all evidence is equal in quality.
Authority does not automatically validate claims.
Balance skepticism with the openness to possibilities based on evidence.
Critical Thinking Explained
Involves analyzing information rationally to discern truth beyond merely accepting it.
Encourages recognizing hidden biases and assumptions and considers alternative explanations.
The Scientific Approach in Psychology
Scientific Approach: Method for gathering data that minimizes bias and error.
Goals of Psychology:
Description: What is happening?
Explanation: Why is it happening?
Prediction: When will it happen again?
Control: How can it be modified?
Steps in the Scientific Approach
Perceive the question.
Form a hypothesis: a tentative explanation based on observations.
Test the hypothesis.
Draw conclusions.
Report the results.
The Scientific Method
Components of the method:
Generate hypothesis from theory
Collect and analyze data
Confirm or modify the theory based on findings.
Research Methods in Psychology
Descriptive Methods
Case Studies:
Detailed study of a single individual.
Advantages: Rich in detail.
Disadvantages: Findings may not generalize (e.g., the case of Phineas Gage).
Naturalistic Observation:
Observing behavior in natural environments.
Advantages: Provides a realistic picture of behavior.
Disadvantages: Observer effect and bias.
Surveys:
Asking questions to a representative sample of a population.
Advantages: Collects data from large numbers of people.
Disadvantages: Need for representative samples to ensure meaningful results.
Laboratory Observation:
Observation in controlled settings.
Advantages: Control over environment and use of specialized equipment.
Disadvantages: May result in artificial behavior.
Correlational Methods
Correlation: A measure of the relationship between two variables.
Variables: Anything that can change or vary.
Enables making predictions.
Correlation coefficient (r):
Indicates direction and strength of the relationship (-1.00 to +1.00).
Types of Correlation:
Positive Correlation: Both variables increase or decrease together.
Negative Correlation: One variable increases while the other decreases.
Important Note: Correlation does not imply causation!
Visual Representations of Correlation
Scatterplots: Illustrate direction and strength:
Perfect positive correlation, modest positive correlation, no correlation, perfect negative correlation, modest negative correlation.
Analyzing Causal Claims
Caution against assuming causation in descriptive and correlational research.
Example: The statement “People who attend psychotherapy tend to be more depressed than the average person” necessitates critical examination.
Experimental Methods
Experiment: Manipulation of a variable to assess cause-effect relationships.
Operationalization: Specific definition of a variable for measurement (e.g., definition of aggressive play).
Key Experimental Concepts
Independent Variable (IV): Variable manipulated by the experimenter (e.g., violent TV).
Dependent Variable (DV): Response or behavior measured (e.g., aggressive play).
Experimental Group: Receives the IV (e.g., group watching violent cartoons).
Control Group: Not exposed to the IV (may receive placebo treatment).
Importance of Randomization
Random Assignment: Process ensuring subjects have equal chances of being in experimental or control groups, controlling for confounding variables.
Hazards in Experimental Design
Placebo Effect: Participant expectations influence behaviors and results.
Experimenter Effect: Researcher biases can unintentionally affect outcomes.
Controlling for Effects
Single-Blind Study: Subjects unaware of group assignment to minimize placebo effects.
Double-Blind Study: Neither subjects nor experimenters know group assignments to reduce biases.
Comparing Research Methods
Research Method | Basic Purpose | How Conducted | What is Manipulated | Weaknesses |
|---|---|---|---|---|
Descriptive | Observe and record behavior | Perform case studies, surveys, naturalistic observations | Nothing | No control of variables; misleading single cases |
Correlational | Detect relationships | Compute statistical associations | Nothing | Does not specify cause-effect |
Experimental | Explore cause-effect | Manipulate factors; random assignment | Independent variables | Practical or ethical limitations; generalizability issues |
Ethical Guidelines in Psychological Research
Must be established and approved by Institutional Review Boards.
Common Ethical Guidelines:
Weigh participants’ rights against study value.
Participants must make informed decisions about participation.
Justification required for deception in studies.
Participants can withdraw at any time.
Protection from risks or explicit communication of possible risks.
Debriefing after study completion.
Ensuring data confidentiality.
Responsibility for Consequences
Researchers must detect and mitigate undesirable consequences of the study.
Animal Research in Psychology
Animal research is necessary to answer questions that cannot be investigated ethically with humans.
Emphasis on minimizing pain and suffering in animal subjects.
Approximately 7% of psychological studies involve animal subjects.