Roman Empire: Quiz Review to Late Empire

Quiz and Assignment Information

  • Second Quiz:
    • Available on Moodle and via email attachment.
    • Open from Wednesday at 8 ext{ AM} to Sunday at 8 ext{ PM}.
    • Time limit increased to two hours (designed as a one-hour quiz).
  • First Out-of-Class Assignment:
    • A written formal analysis.
    • Discussion on Wednesday covering meaning and approach.
    • Due date to be determined (in a couple of weeks).
    • Requires finding a piece of artwork on campus and writing a minimum 500\ word formal analysis.
  • Upcoming Topic: Early Christianity (time permitting on Wednesday).

Review of The Colosseum (Flavian Amphitheater)

  • Entrances: Had 86 entrances, using barrel vaults (half-barrel shape).
  • Purpose: Primarily for gladiator fights; it is the best-preserved and most famous amphitheater, though not the only one.
  • Construction Materials & Appearance:
    • Exterior originally faced with marble, as Romans enjoyed using cheap building materials but would embellish the outside.
    • Current view differs from ancient Rome: missing upper wooden level (standing room only), floor (exposing the basement for competitors and animals), and parts of its superstructure (exterior facing).
  • Capacity & Patronage:
    • Could hold around 50,000 spectators.
    • Commissioned by Emperor Vespasian (after Nero) as a public service, akin to "bread and circuses" propaganda, to gain popularity.
  • Architectural Orders:
    • Columns arranged from heavier, more masculine orders at the bottom to lighter, more feminine orders at the top: Doric, Ionic, then Corinthian.
    • Corinthian capitals are decorated with acanthus leaves.
    • Columns are engaged (part of the wall), not freestanding.
  • Efficiency and Design:
    • Highly efficient design for entry and exit, resembling modern stadiums.
    • Elliptical shape provided better views for all.
    • Seating tiered by social class (wealthy, poorer citizens, women in the top wooden level).
    • Featured canvas shades (velarium) to protect spectators from the sun and sand on the ground to absorb blood.

Review of The Arch of Titus

  • Triumphal Arch: A freestanding arch commemorating significant events, typically military victories.
  • Commemoration: Honors Emperor Titus for his victory in putting down the Judean revolt in 70 ext{ CE}.
  • Architectural Features:
    • Spandrels: Curvy, triangular shapes on either side of the arch's curve.
    • Corinthian capitals with acanthus leaves.
    • Coffers: Decorative indentations on the interior of the arch.
  • Relief Sculpture:
    • Depicts the spoils of Jerusalem, clearly showing a menorah and the silver trumpets from the Temple of Jerusalem.
    • Features high sculptural relief, creating depth with background figures in lower relief and foreground figures in higher relief, conveying a strong sense of movement and naturalism.

The High Empire (96 ext{ CE} through January)

  • Assassination of Domitian: Marked the beginning of this period. Emperors often used Praetorian Guards (personal bodyguards), but assassinations were common.
  • Emperor Trajan:
    • Gained power with the consent of the Senate.
    • The first Roman emperor born outside the Italian Peninsula (he was Spanish).
    • Under his rule, the Roman Empire reached its greatest geographical extent.
    • Like Vespasian, he exemplified "good emperors" who built large public spaces to gain public favor.
  • Emperor Hadrian: Notable for burning public debt records.
  • Emperor Marcus Aurelius:
    • During his reign, the empire remained at its largest.
    • Spent most of his rule fighting "barbarians" on the borders, leading the imperial government to assume greater responsibility for public welfare.
    • Portrayed as the emperor who dies early in the movie Gladiator, succeeded by his son Commodus.

The Forum of Trajan

  • Designer: Apollodorus of Damascus (from Syria), highlighting the multicultural nature of the Roman Empire.
  • Roman Society: Pre-modern Rome was highly advanced and multicultural, featuring indoor plumbing, running water, food carts, and public bathrooms.
  • Purpose: A vast public space, serving as propaganda for Emperor Trajan.
  • Key Elements:
    • A large open piazza (square) used for public law courts and events (e.g., Hadrian burning debt records).
    • An equestrian statue of Trajan (no longer extant, but influenced later art).
    • Incorporated libraries and a beautiful colonnade.
    • Paved in marble, with gilded bronze roof tiles on surrounding structures.
    • Inscriptions declared the complex was built using spoils of war, reinforcing Trajan's image.

The Basilica Ulpia (Part of the Forum of Trajan)

  • Definition of Basilica: Architecturally, a large oblong hall or building characterized by double colonnades and a semicircular apse (a curved end).
  • Roman vs. Christian Use:
    • Ancient Rome: Predated Christianity, used as a court of law or for public assemblies.
    • Christianity: Later adopted the basilica form for churches, typically rotating the layout by 90 degrees so entry was on the short side, facing the altar (making the apse a focal point).
  • Features of Basilica Ulpia:
    • Dominated the north end of the piazza.
    • Huge interior space with a timber and tile roof supported by massive columns.
    • Sumptuously decorated with marble floors and walls, and bronze tiles on the roof that were gilded.
    • Served as a setting for public business, important trials, and general administrative functions.
  • Vocabulary:
    • Nave: The central part of a basilica or church, typically rectangular in Western churches, where the congregation sits.
    • Apse: A semicircular or polygonal recess, usually arched or with a domed roof, found at one or both ends of a basilica (Basilica Ulpia had two apses, Christian churches usually have one).

The Column of Trajan

  • Dedication: January.
  • Historical Context: Commemorates Trajan's victories in the Dacian Wars (Dacia is modern-day Romania).
    • Dacians were considered troublesome neighbors, threatening the province of Moesia on the Danube Rive, and Dacia possessed valuable natural resources, especially gold.
    • Trajan defeated the Dacian leader Decebalus (who died by suicide) in the first war; a second, decisive war followed, leading to 100\ days of city celebrations.
    • Dacia was incorporated as an imperial province, and its natural wealth exploited. Trajan earned the title Dacius Maxus ("Greatest Dacian").
  • Artistic Features:
    • Sculptural Relief: Extremely intricate carving, reminiscent of ancient Near Eastern artwork, utilizing registers.
    • Narrative Freeze: The story winds spirally up the column, beginning with the First Dacian War at the bottom and chronologically progressing to the Second Dacian War at the top.
      • Freeze: A sculptural work where figures and scenes are carved to tell a story, often emerging from a flat background.
    • Detail and Color: Meticulously executed with high detail; most scholars believe it was brightly painted in ancient Rome.
    • Perspective: Features different perspectival views with background and foreground elements.
    • Theme: The triumph of Roman civilization (orderly, uniform, clean-shaven soldiers) over its "barbarian" antithesis (shaggy, bearded Dacians wearing leggings; e.g., the Dacian god of the Danube).
  • Unusual Burial Site: The base of the column served as Trajan's tomb, an unusual honor for an emperor who died while returning from foreign campaigns.

The Pantheon

  • Name Origin: "Pan" (all) + "Theos" (god), traditionally interpreted as a temple to all Roman gods.
  • Conversion and Preservation:
    • Originally a Roman temple, it was converted into a Christian church in 609 ext{ AD} (officially the Basilica Of Saint Mary Of The Martyrs).
    • Its continuous occupation since its conception between 114 and 125 ext{ AD} is why it is in fantastic condition.
  • Architectural Design:
    • Round in plan (a rotunda) except for its portico (front porch) and colonnade.
    • Highly unusual in Roman architecture, with no prior precedent for this design.
    • Became extremely influential, inspiring buildings for thousands of years.
  • Dome:
    • Features the world's largest unreinforced concrete dome, a testament to Roman concrete mastery.
    • The height to the oculus (the round, eye-like opening at the center of the dome) and the diameter of the interior circle are both 43 ext{ meters} (142 ext{ feet}).
  • Vocabulary:
    • Oculus: A round or eye-like opening or design, a circular window, or an opening at the apex of a dome.
    • Rotunda: Any round building or room, especially if it has a dome.
  • Construction Debate: The exterior inscription cites Marcus Agrippa (Augustus's son-in-law). Scholarly opinion suggests Trajan or Hadrian built the current structure, possibly preserving Agrippa's inscription to honor him.
  • Interior Features: Marble floor (can be slippery). The oculus has always been open.
  • Historical Significance of Dome: The knowledge of how to construct such an unreinforced concrete dome was largely lost in Western history for about 1,000 years after the fall of Rome, until the Renaissance.
  • Decorative Elements: The dome features dramatic coffers, which are patterned indentations.

Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius

  • Survival: Unlike Trajan's equestrian statue, this one survives. The original is in the Capitoline Museum, with a replica made in 1981\ standing on the Piazza De Campidoglio.
  • Description: Life-sized bronze statue, measuring 13.9 ext{ feet} tall, depicting the emperor on horseback.
  • Rarity of Bronze: Few Roman bronze sculptures survive, as bronze was often melted down for weapons or other uses. Marcus Aurelius's statue survived due to a case of mistaken identity.
  • Reason for Survival: In the medieval period, it was mistakenly identified as Emperor Constantine, the first Christian emperor. This spared it from being melted down, unlike other bronze statues of pre-Christian (pagan) emperors, which were removed and destroyed in the period of iconoclasm.
  • Iconography: Marcus Aurelius makes a gesture with a raised hand, associated with oration and public speaking in ancient Rome, which later influenced Christian iconography (e.g., Jesus preaching). This further contributed to its mistaken identity.
  • Art Historical Significance: This tradition of depicting leaders on horseback with a horse raising its front leg has long art historical roots, seen later in works like Napoleon's portraits.
  • Dynamic Pose: The horse is caught in motion, showing contrapposto, with its head turned and a foreleg raised, conveying dynamism.
  • Emperor's Attire: Marcus Aurelius is depicted in civic garb (short-sleeved tunic, cloak, senatorial boots) rather than as a soldier, despite spending much of his life in military campaigns.

The Late Empire (Decline and Tetrarchy)

  • Beginning: Marked by the death of Marcus Aurelius, signaling a period of decline where the empire began to shrink as "barbarians" reclaimed territories.
  • Governance Challenges: The vastness of the empire made it unwieldy to govern by a single person, especially as emperors spent less time in Rome and more time defending borders.
  • Religious Shift: Pagan religions lost favor, and Christianity began to rise in popularity.
  • Severan Dynasty: This period included emperors like Septimius Severus and his son Caracalla.
  • Portrait Bust of Caracalla (211 ext{ - } 217 ext{ CE}):
    • Official name: Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (Caracalla was a nickname).
    • Emperor from 211 ext{ - } 217 ext{ CE}. Briefly shared power with his brother Geta, whom he had murdered by the Praetorian Guard to become sole ruler.
    • Depiction: Always portrayed scowling with furrowed brows, reflecting his identity as a soldier rather than a philosopher-emperor (unlike Marcus Aurelius). He has a short, military-style haircut and minimal facial hair.
    • Contemporaneous Accounts: Ancient sources describe him as a cruel tyrant.
    • Later Influence: His image was revived in late 18^{ ext{th}}\ century France during the French Revolution as a symbol of tyrannical rulers.
  • Damnatio Memoriae:
    • Literally "damning the memory."
    • Example: A family portrait showing Septimius Severus, Julia Domna, Caracalla, and the murdered Geta, whose face was scratched out and smeared, demonstrating a severe instance of this practice.
    • Roman Fashion: Julia Domna popularized wigs for Roman empresses, and her lighter skin tone reflects artistic conventions of depicting women as paler than men (though Septimius Severus, from North Africa, might have had naturally darker skin).
  • Portrait of the Four Tetrarchs (300 ext{ CE}):
    • Material: Made of porphyry, a rare, expensive, and hard-to-carve stone with a natural purple sheen, symbolizing royalty and imperial power.
    • Origin and Current Location: Originally from Constantinople (modern Istanbul), it was taken by Crusaders during the Fourth Crusade in 1204\ and is now at Saint Mark's Basilica in Venice.
    • Context of Tetrarchy: Due to the empire's unwieldy size and frequent assassinations, Emperor Diocletian divided the empire into Western and Eastern halves. He then established the tetrarchy system:
      • Two senior emperors (Augusti).
      • Two junior emperors (Caesari), chosen as successors by the Augusti.
      • This system aimed to ensure unity and stability, preventing civil wars and succession crises.
    • Depiction: Shows two pairs of Augusti and Caesari embracing, symbolizing unity. The Augusti (senior emperors) are depicted with beards, while the Caesari (junior emperors) are beardless.
    • Lack of Portraiture: The faces are not specific individuals but represent the idea of unity, stability, and a clear succession plan, moving away from explicit individual portraiture.
    • Material Challenges: Porphyry's rarity and difficulty in carving contribute to the sculpture's generalized features. Many such sculptures found in museums are missing limbs or feet because they were chiseled out of larger blocks of buildings when looted. ,