Strain Theory Overview and Key Concepts
FOUNDATION FOR A GENERAL STRAIN THEORY OF CRIME AND DELINQUENCY
Introduction to General Strain Theory
Presented by Robert Agnew, Emory University.
Aim: To provide a general strain theory of crime and delinquency that addresses criticisms of prior strain theories.
Structure of the paper includes:
Distinction of strain theory from social control and differential association/social learning theory.
Description of three major types of strain:
Failure to achieve positively valued goals.
Removal of positively valued stimuli.
Presentation of negatively valued stimuli.
Guidelines for measuring strain discussed.
Discussion on adaptations to strain and factors influencing choices between delinquent and nondelinquent adaptations.
Historical Context and Evolution of Strain Theory
Strain theory was dominant in deviance research during the 1960s.
In the 1970s, faced significant criticism (e.g., Bernard, 1984; Cole, 1975).
Some researchers argued for abandoning strain theory (e.g., Hirschi, 1969; Kornhauser, 1978).
Although it has survived, its influence has dimmed, with strain variables playing a limited role in contemporary delinquency explanations.
Many recent causal models exclude strain variables or assign them minimal importance (e.g., Elliott et al., 1985; Johnson, 1979).
Aim of the Paper
Argues for a central role of revised strain theory in understanding crime and delinquency.
Builds on traditional models by incorporating new research from various fields:
Medical sociology and psychology (stress research).
Social psychology (equity/justice).
Aggression psychology (frustration-aggression).
This theory focuses on individual experiences and social environments, particularly adolescents, due to availability of relevant data.
Comparison with Other Theories
Distinction from Social Control Theory
Strain Theory Focuses on Negative Relationships:
Investigates relationships where the individual is treated negatively, inhibiting goal achievement.
Social Control Theory Focuses on Absence of Relationships:
Emphasizes lack of ties to conventional entities (school, parents, institutions).
Key elements leading to delinquency:
Lack of attachment to social institutions.
Minimal investment in conventional society.
Failure to internalize conventional beliefs.
Distinction from Differential Association/Social Learning Theory
Strain Theory Emphasizes Negative Affective States:
Argues adolescents react to negative stimuli with emotions like anger.
Differential Association Focuses on Positive Relationships with Deviant Others:
Delinquency rises from associations that reinforce delinquency and model deviant behavior, viewing such acts as justified.
Major Types of Strain
Negative Relationships and Types of Strain
Negative Relationships Defined:
Occurrences where individuals are treated contrary to their expectations or needs.
Traditional theories (Merton, Cohen, Cloward & Ohlin) primarily address:
Goal blockage affecting lower-class individuals striving for monetary success or status.
Revision by Agnew includes both immediate goals and a broader classification of strains affecting adolescents.
Three Major Sources of Strain:
Failure to Achieve Positively Valued Goals:
Types of Strain Within This Category:
Disjunction Between Aspirations and Actual Achievements:
Focus on goals society promotes vs. actual achievements, predominantly involving monetary success.
Criticized for neglecting other forms of delinquency and barriers to goal achievement beyond class limits.
Disjunction Between Expectations and Actual Achievements:
Based on past experiences and social comparisons.
Research suggests unmet expectations produce distress and anger, potentially leading to delinquency.
Disjunction Between Just/Fair Outcomes and Actual Outcomes:
Involves feelings of inequity, often leading to negative emotional responses and delinquency as a restorative action.
Removal of Positively Valued Stimuli:
Involves actual or anticipated loss (e.g., relationships, status, possessions), leading to adverse reactions and potential delinquent behavior.
Common examples include loss of friends or parental support, which can trigger aggressive behaviors.
Presentation of Negative Stimuli:
Encompasses exposure to harmful environmental factors (e.g., abuse, unemployment, neglect), contributing to detrimental emotional states and delinquent responses.
These three sources of strain may overlap, affecting an individual's emotional reactions and actions leading to delinquency.
Links Between Strain and Delinquency
Each strain type leads to negative emotions, particularly anger, which increases the likelihood of delinquent acts.
Anger induces a desire for revenge, energizing actions to alleviate strain or achieve goals.
General Strain Theory posits that this model accounts for a wide array of delinquent behaviors, including theft and aggression.
Measuring Strain
Guidelines for Measurement
Current criminology primarily examines strain through goal blockage.
General Strain Theory proposes measuring:
Goal Blocking Strain: Failure to achieve important expectations and goals.
Loss of Positive Stimuli: Tracking lost relationship dynamics and their impact.
Negative Stimuli Presentation: Evaluate experiences of damaging environmental factors.
Researchers should consider cumulative and interactive impacts of various strains.
Importance of measuring individuals’ subjective feelings about their experiences to capture the intimate effects of strain on behavior.
Research Considerations
Utilize composite scores for cumulative stress events and design longitudinal studies to explore the lasting impact of strain.
Include qualitative approaches to understand subjective interpretations of strain experiences across diverse populations.
Adaptations to Strain (Coping Strategies)
Categories of Coping Strategies
Cognitive Coping Strategies:
i.e., minimizing the importance of adversity (e.g., “It's not a big deal”).
Examples include lowering aspirations or rationalizing adverse experiences as deserved.
Behavioral Coping Strategies:
Engaging in actions to remove or mitigate sources of strain.
May involve legitimate responses or delinquent actions, driven by a need for revenge.
Emotional Coping Strategies:
Seeking ways to deal with negative emotions, potentially through drugs or other escapistic behaviors.
Individuals employ more than one of the listed strategies simultaneously.
APPLYING A GENERAL STRAIN THEORY FRAMEWORK TO UNDERSTAND SCHOOL WEAPON CARRYING AMONG LGBQ AND HETEROSEXUAL YOUTH
Authors and Affiliations
Deeanna M. Button, School for Social and Behavioral Sciences Criminal Justice Program, Stockton University
Meredith G. F. Worthen, Department of Sociology, University of Oklahoma
Keywords
LGBQ, lesbian, gay, bisexual, questioning
School weapon carrying
Social support
Social isolation
Victimization
General strain theory (GST)
School violence
Background
LGBQ youth face higher risks for school victimization, social isolation, and weapon carrying than heterosexual peers.
Limited research exists focusing on LGBQ youth in this context.
Methodology
Utilized data from the Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS), a statewide probability sample of students in Delaware (N=8,172).
Heterosexual youth (n=7,688)
LGBQ youth (n=484)
Data collection years: 2003, 2005, and 2007.
Examined factors influencing school weapon carrying under the GST framework.
Findings
Main Results
Victimization and Weapon Carrying
Both LGBQ and heterosexual youth experience school victimization correlated with weapon carrying.
LGBQ youth carry weapons at rates 3-6 times higher than heterosexual youth.
In 2014, 850,000 nonfatal victimizations reported among youth aged 12-18 at school.
33 per 1,000 students experienced victimization.
18% of youth reported carrying weapons, 5% did so on school property in the past 30 days.
7% reported threats or injuries with weapons on school grounds.
Gender Differences
Being male significantly correlates with weapon carrying among heterosexual youth.
No significant relationship for male gender concerning weapon carrying among LGBQ youth, indicating different coping mechanisms.
Social Support’s Role
Social support did not moderate the relationship between school victimization and weapon carrying as hypothesized by GST.
Levels of social support varied between LGBQ and heterosexual youth with LGBQ youth reporting more social isolation.
Statistical Analysis
Chi-square tests and logistic regression models were used to evaluate categorical differences and relationships among variables, such as victimization types and weapon carrying frequency.
Analysis included interaction effects to assess social support's role in context.
Theoretical Framework: General Strain Theory (GST)
GST posits that strain or stress catalyzes criminal behaviors. Strain can occur through:
Failure to achieve goals
Disjuncture between expectations and achievements
Lack of positive stimuli
Presence of negative stimuli
Victimization acts as a significant source of strain leading to maladaptive coping strategies, including weapon carrying.
Literature Review
Existing Research on LGBQ Youth and Weapon Carrying
Research shows that approximately 20% of LGBQ youth carried a weapon to school in the last 30 days.
Studies by Garofalo et al. (1998) find LGB students significantly more likely (2x to 5x) to carry weapons compared to heterosexual students.
Victimization of LGBQ Youth
High prevalence of anti-LGBQ remarks and physical harassment reported (e.g., 71.4% heard negatives towards their identity).
Increased instances of absenteeism related to feeling unsafe at school (30.3%).
Connection Between Victimization and Weapon Carrying
Studies show a direct link between experiences of victimization, aggression, and weapon carrying behavior.
Role of Social Support
Social support found to reduce harmful effects of victimization; however, limited accessibility observed for LGBQ youth.
Lack of social support is conversely highlighted as a significant source of strain.
Research Questions Addressed
Difference in school weapon carrying between LGBQ and heterosexual youth.
Does the relationship between victimization and weapon carrying differ by sexual identity?
Role of social support for both demographics.
Is social isolation a more useful conceptualization in this context than as a moderating variable?
Statistical Data and Key Findings
Table 1 reviews sample demographics, revealing:
Gender: Near equal male (48.9%) to female (51.1%) distribution.
Racial demographics with notable representations across various minority groups.
Mean age calculated at 15.97 years.
Table 2 highlights significant differences:
17.1% (LGBQ) vs. 5.1% (Heterosexual) report weapon carrying.
Higher rates of victimization experienced by LGBQ youth compared to heterosexual peers.
Table 6 demonstrates logistic regression models showing consistent effects of social isolation on weapon carrying outcomes.
Discussion and Implications
Reinforces GST as a valuable lens for understanding varying victimization experiences and resultant weapon carrying patterns among diverse youth.
Suggests that future policies must cater to LGBQ youth sensibilities and victimization experiences heavily to mitigate weapon carrying.
Aligns with circumstances surrounding school climate and consideration of LGBQ identity and experiences as crucial in criminological discourse.
Limitations and Future Research Directions
Need for more representative sampling including LGBQ identities beyond singular markers.
Additional consideration required for various forms of victimization beyond physical bullying.
Expansion of GST applications to include emotional states like anger or depression in future studies to yield further insights.
References
Extensive references covering the research context and methodologies, including central criminological literature, previous studies on LGBQ youth, and GST.
Study Guide on General Strain Theory of Crime and Delinquency
Anomie Definition and Comparison
Anomie refers to a state of normlessness, breakdown of social norms or values, leading to feelings of confusion or disconnection in society.
Durkheim describes anomie as arising during times of social upheaval, leading to higher rates of deviance and crime due to a lack of societal guidance.
Merton’s interpretation connects anomie to the disjunction between culturally prescribed goals (like wealth) and the means available to achieve them. For him, this results in different modes of individual adaptation.
Examples:
Durkheim: Post-war periods where traditional values are lost—people feel lost.
Merton: Individuals in impoverished neighborhoods who turn to crime to achieve financial success.
Comparison with Classical School Theories
Classical School Perspective Nurtures rational choice—individuals make a conscious decision to engage in crime based on costs vs. benefits.
Strain Theory Perspective Views human nature as shaped by social structures leading to varying means to achieve societal goals.
This perspective may lead to more rehabilitative approaches in criminal legal systems, focusing on societal factors influencing behavior rather than solely punitive measures.
Early Versions of Strain Theory Elements
Introduces the concept of stress and strain as critical components influencing criminal behavior, a shift from purely biological or psychological explanations.
Benefits: Highlights the importance of social factors and individual experiences.
Drawbacks: Risk of oversimplifying complex behaviors leading to crime without considering innate factors or broader social contexts.
Agnew's Perspectives
Difference between Coping Mechanisms:
Legitimate coping mechanisms: Seeking support, engaging in positive activities.
Illegitimate coping mechanisms: Involvement in drugs, violence.
Types of Coping Strategies:
Cognitive: Rationalizing or downplaying stress (e.g., “It’s not a big deal”).
Behavioral: Acting to change the source of stress (e.g., retaliating).
Emotional: Seeking comfort through substances or escapism.
Adverse Events Examination: Agnew identifies specific adverse events (loss, victimization) and categorizes them, examining their impact on delinquency.
Classification of Types of Strain
Agnew classifies strains into three categories, considering how these manifest differently throughout life:
Failure to achieve goals
Loss of positive stimuli
Presence of negative stimuli
Children might respond differently than adults, with their coping mechanisms evolving.
Merton's Views
Merton believes the main motivation for individuals is the societal goal of success.
This motivation interacts with structural factors leading to deviant behavior due to blocked avenues to success.
Merton’s Diagram illustrates types of adaptations (conformity, innovation, ritualism, retreatism, rebellion) with corresponding examples such as:
Innovation: A person who engages in fraud to achieve financial success.
Structural strain refers specifically to societal pressures that create expectations, while general strain includes more personal, individual experiences.
Button and Worthen's Findings
LGBQ populations carry weapons more often due to higher victimization rates and associated stress. Major variables include social isolation and victimization.
Characterization of Strain: Presented as a response to systemic inequality and marginalization, where lack of support worsens outcomes.
Policy Changes Recommended: Develop programs that address LGBQ stressors, improve school climate, and provide supportive networks to mitigate strain and its consequences.