Period 4: Accelerating Global Change and Realignments, c 1900 to the Present

The Decline of Empires
  • Ottoman Empire: Transitioned from an empire to the modern nation of Turkey.
  • Communism's Rising Influence: Russia shifted inward to communism, remaining isolated until WWII.
  • Technological Stagnation: Common reason for decline in the Ottoman Empire, Russian Empire, and the Qing dynasty.
    • Internal dissatisfaction and failure to modernize led to unrest and rebellions.
    • Loss in wars due to outdated military technologies compared to Western nations.
Independence Movements Post-WWI
  • Colonial Anger: After WWI, many colonies were promised independence but did not receive it, leading to significant unrest.
  • Key Nations Seeking Independence:
    • India: Led by Gandhi, focused on self-rule and faced religious division (Hindus vs. Muslims).
    • Vietnam: Nationalist leader Ho Chi Minh fought against colonial rule after being under Chinese and French control.
    • Ghana: Kwame Nkrumah led peaceful negotiations for independence from Britain.
Negotiated vs. Violent Independence
  • Negotiated Independence: Relatively peaceful transfer of power; highlighted by India's gradual push for self-governance post-WWII.
    • India was partitioned into Hindu-majority India and Muslim-majority Pakistan due to ethnic and religious conflicts.
  • Violent Independence:
    • Algeria: French opposition led to a bloody war, resulting in independence in 1962 after a decade of conflict.
    • Vietnam: Civil war ensued between North (communist) and South (democratic), resulting in the eventual fall of South Vietnam in 1975.
    • Angola: Prolonged civil war after fighting for independence from Portugal, influenced by Cold War tensions.
Complexity of Post-Colonial States
  • Challenges of Independence: Newly independent countries struggled to govern effectively due to ethnic strife and lack of previous governance experience.
  • Religious and Ethnic Movements: Division often led to violence, as evident in the partition of India and subsequent migration crises.
Emergence of Global Movements
  • Transnational Movements:
    • Communism: Aimed to unite workers globally and became a significant force in numerous countries.
    • Pan-Arabism and Pan-Africanism: Facilitated collaboration among Arab states and African nations, respectively, to promote unity and cross-border cooperation.
Land Redistribution Efforts
  • Socialism and Land Reform: Aimed to redistribute land to the impoverished from wealthy landowners.
    • Zimbabwe: Attempted land redistribution under Robert Mugabe led to controversies and economic issues.
    • China: Land reforms by Mao Zedong led to collectivization but also to widespread hardship.
    • Mexico: The 1910 revolution sought land reform but faced obstacles in sustainable redistribution.
Redrawing Borders and Migratory Consequences
  • India-Pakistan Partition: Religious tensions caused a massive migration and significant violence, with an estimated one million deaths during the process.
  • Zionism and Creation of Israel: Creation of Israel in 1948 led to displacement of Palestinian populations, resulting in ongoing conflict.
Conflict and Genocide
  • Major Genocides that occurred in the 20th century:
    • Armenian Genocide: Targeted by Ottoman Empire, resulting in significant loss of life.
    • Holocaust: Systematic annihilation of Jews and other perceived threats, facilitated by Nazi Germany.
    • Cambodia: Khmer Rouge regime led to mass killings to achieve a classless society.
    • Rwanda: Ethnic conflict between Hutus and Tutsis escalated into genocide in 1994.
Total War and Ideologies
  • World Wars as Total Wars:
    • Both World Wars saw total mobilization of state resources and citizen involvement.
  • Comparison of Ideologies:
    • Communism: Seeks a classless society with state ownership of production.
    • Fascism: Promotes nationalism alongside private ownership while suppressing opposition.
Cold War Dynamics
  • Superpowers and Proxy Wars: The US and USSR contended for global influence, leading to conflicts around the world, including Vietnam and Korea.
  • Military Alliances: NATO (USA and Western Europe) vs. Warsaw Pact (USSR and Eastern Europe).
Movements Against War and Injustice
  • Nonviolent Resistance: Led by figures like Gandhi and Martin Luther King Jr. who sought change without violence.
  • Military Dictatorships: Led through repression and coercion, exemplified by regimes in Uganda and Spain.
  • Global Uprisings of 1968: A year of widespread protests against authoritarianism and for civil rights globally.
Conclusion: Lasting Consequences
  • Ethnic Violence and Refugee Crises: Resulted from the conflicts of decolonization and subsequent failures in governance.
  • Cultural Impact of Conflict: Seen in art, literature, and media reflecting societal traumas from wars and genocides.