SD

Chapter 3: The British Atlantic World, 1660–1750 - Key Terms (VOCABULARY)

Overview

These notes offer an in-depth summary of the British Atlantic World from 1660 to 1750, analyzing how transatlantic interconnections forged a powerful South Atlantic System driven by trade and slavery. The notes also explore how evolving imperial policies, significant wars, and administrative reorganizations fundamentally reshaped colonial governance and profoundly impacted the social, economic, and political fabric of British North America and the Caribbean.

Key throughline
: Mercantilist ambitions and intense imperial competition were driving forces that increasingly pushed British colonies toward interdependence with Britain and with each other. Concurrently, Native American populations and Africans (both free and enslaved) emerged as central, active participants and shapers of the complex Atlantic world, rather than mere passive recipients of European actions.

Primary tensions
: This era was marked by persistent struggles between the colonies' desire for greater self-government and economic autonomy on one hand, versus Britain's efforts to exert tighter imperial controls on the other. Within restrictive racial regimes, free black and enslaved communities actively built intricate social and economic networks. Internationally, European powers relentlessly used warfare and diplomatic negotiations to carve out and solidify their spheres of influence across North America and the Caribbean, leading to frequent conflicts and shifting alliances.

Foundational Context

The burgeoning Atlantic world comprehensively linked Europe, Africa, and the Americas through robust networks of trade, recurrent warfare, and intricate diplomacy. This expansion drastically increased the colonial powers' reach and intensified their reliance on enslaved labor, which became indispensable for the production of cash crops.

The Covenant Chain and Native alliances
: British colonies, particularly New York through its alliance with the Iroquois Confederacy, increasingly relied on powerful Native American confederacies and sophisticated diplomacy. These alliances were critical for extending British power, effectively managing contested frontiers, and securing vital land and trade relationships, often at the expense of other Native groups or rival European powers.

The period culminates in a sustained tug-of-war between strong local colonial autonomy (manifested in the growing power of colonial assemblies and the policy of "salutary neglect") and persistent imperial efforts by Britain to tighten control through strict mercantilist policies, costly wars, and comprehensive administrative reorganizations like the establishment of the Board of Trade.

Key Concepts and Terms (Definitions and Significance)

South Atlantic System
: An integrated Atlantic economy that was fundamentally plantation- and slave-based, with its lucrative core centered on the intensive cultivation of sugar, tobacco, rice, and other high-demand commodities. This system intricately linked Africa (as the source of enslaved labor), the Caribbean (as the primary site of sugar production), and the British mainland colonies (producing tobacco, rice, and other goods). The immense profits generated by this system profoundly funded European economies, particularly Britain's, and were instrumental in Britain's ascendancy to global trade dominance. \text{South Atlantic System}

Mercantilism
: An influential economic theory that guided English imperial policy. Its core objective was to maximize national wealth by exporting more goods than were imported, accumulating bullion (gold and silver), and ensuring that colonial trade remained exclusively within the empire's economic orbit. The Navigation Acts were the primary legislative tools used to enforce this restrictive system in the Americas and against rival European powers. \text{Mercantilism}

Navigation Acts (1651–1751)
: A comprehensive suite of parliamentary laws enacted over a century, designed to channel all colonial trade through English ports and ships, severely restrict the import of foreign goods, and mandate English (or colonial English) crew requirements. Key acts include those of 1651 (targeting Dutch shipping), 1660 (enumerating goods like tobacco and sugar that could only be shipped to England or other English colonies), 1663 (Staple Act, requiring all European goods bound for colonies to first pass through England), 1673 (requiring duties on enumerated goods shipped between colonies), 1696 (strengthening enforcement), and later acts like the 1732 Hat Act, 1733 Molasses Act, 1750 Iron Act, and 1751 Currency Act, all aimed at regulating colonial manufacturing and finance. These acts were central to the mercantilist framework. \text{Navigation Acts (1651

–1751)}

Dominion of New England (1686–1689)
: King James II's ambitious but ill-fated attempt to consolidate vast imperial control over New England, New York, and New Jersey. This move involved centralizing authority under Governor Edmund Andros, dissolving traditional local legislatures, and enforcing Anglican worship, directly challenging the deeply embedded traditions of colonial self-governance and religious autonomy. Its rapid collapse was triggered by news of the Glorious Revolution in England, leading to revolts and the restoration of localized self-government. \text{Dominion of New England}

Glorious Revolution (1688–1689)
: A pivotal bloodless political upheaval in England that led to the overthrow of James II and the ascension of William of Orange and Mary II. This event firmly established a constitutional monarchy, curtailed royal absolutism, and significantly empowered Parliament. In the colonies, it fostered a more republican-leaning, assembly-centered model of governance, reinforcing and even expanding colonial autonomy by prompting local uprisings against perceived tyranny. \text{Glorious Revolution}

Salutary neglect (roughly 1714–1750)
: An unofficial British policy characterized by minimal enforcement of trade laws (like the Navigation Acts) and generally lax imperial oversight over the colonies. This de facto policy allowed colonial assemblies to substantially gain power, increase their self-governing capacities, and experiment with local governance, fostering a sense of independent political identity. The period ended as Britain began to reassert greater control after the French and Indian War. \text{Salutary neglect}

Covenants and diplomacy with Native Americans
: Formal and informal agreements that shaped relations, such as the
Covenant Chain
(a series of alliances and agreements primarily between the Iroquois Confederacy and the colony of New York, but extending to other colonies). This served as a critical model of collaborative diplomacy, essential for managing borders, regulating lucrative fur and deerskin trade, and resolving—or instigating—conflicts on the frontier. \text{Covenant Chain}

Covenant obligations and land deals
: Colonists exerted continuous pressure on their Native allies to confirm land agreements, often through dubious treaties or reinterpretations, and to secure military support against rival Native groups or European powers. Native leaders, such as the influential Onondaga speaker Canassatego, skillfully negotiated these complex arrangements, constantly balancing diplomatic gifts, ancestral land rights, and political leverage to preserve their autonomy and interests. \text{Land agreements; Canassatego}

Middle Passage
: The brutal and horrifying transatlantic voyage endured by millions of enslaved Africans from West Africa to the Americas. Characterized by unspeakably cruel conditions, extreme overcrowding, disease, and high mortality rates (with approximately 14\% dying during the voyage itself, accounting for about 1.5 million deaths), it was a foundational and horrific component of the South Atlantic System, supplying the labor force for plantation economies. \text{Middle Passage}

Stono Rebellion (1739)
: The most significant slave uprising in the mainland British colonies, occurring in South Carolina. Around 100 enslaved Africans, likely led by a man named Jemmy, attempted to march to Spanish Florida for freedom, killing several white settlers and burning plantations before being brutally suppressed by a well-armed militia. This rebellion starkly highlighted the constant threat of slave resistance, intensified fear among planters, and led to the immediate and severe tightening of slave codes across the southern colonies. \text{Stono Rebellion}

The Rise of Colonial Assemblies
: The gradual but significant growth in the authority, influence, and legislative power of representative bodies (assemblies) in the British colonies. These assemblies increasingly gained control over taxation, public spending, and even the appointment of local officials, pushing back vigorously against royal prerogatives and asserting their right to govern based on popular consent. \text{Rise of Colonial Assemblies}

The War of Jenkins’s Ear (1739–1741) and the War of the Austrian Succession (1740–1748)
: These were major Anglo-European conflicts that had significant repercussions in North America and the Caribbean, beyond the European theaters. They frequently involved colonial militias in fighting a combined French and Spanish threat, shaping imperial policy and influencing colonial loyalties by demonstrating the colonies' strategic importance and their vulnerability to imperial conflicts. \text{War of Jenkins’s Ear; War of the Austrian Succession}

The Imperial slave economy and the South Atlantic System’s global profits
: The vast economic engine powered by slave labor and the production of sugar, rice, tobacco, and other commodities. This system generated immense wealth that directly financed European economies, stimulated transatlantic shipping, dramatically expanded shipbuilding industries, fueled the growth of financial institutions, and ultimately transformed Britain into the world's leading commercial power. \text{Slave Economy; Global Profits}

The Four Indian Kings (1710)
: A significant diplomatic mission to London undertaken by four sachems (chiefs), three Mohawk and one Mahican, from the Iroquois Confederacy. Their visit highlighted Native American diplomacy as a critical element of imperial strategy, demonstrating the symbolic power of alliance-building and the complex ways Indigenous nations engaged directly with the British Crown to protect their interests and secure military support against French expansion. \text{Four Indian Kings}

Major Regions and Developments

England’s imperial expansion and land grants (1660–1681): Following the Restoration of Charles II, the English Crown actively pursued a strategy of imperial expansion in North America. This involved granting vast tracts of land to loyal proprietors and consolidating control over former Dutch territories. Key acquisitions included the Carolina proprietorship (1663), the seizure of New Netherland which became New York (1664), the subsequent creation of New Jersey, and William Penn’s founding of Pennsylvania (1681). These dramatic territorial shifts fundamentally reshaped North America’s political map and laid the groundwork for complex imperial governance and diverse colonial societies. \text{Carolina proprietorship; New York; New Jersey; Pennsylvania}

The Carolinas: These proprietary colonies evolved into distinct northern and southern regions due to differing settlement patterns, economic drivers, and social structures.

South Carolina
: Developed rapidly into a prosperous, albeit brutal, plantation economy, with
rice
becoming the dominant cash crop. This required immense quantities of
slave labor
, initially from enslaved Native Americans and increasingly from enslaved Africans, who were forced into grueling conditions in mosquito-infested swamps. The Black population soared, becoming the numeric majority by 1710 and reaching approximately 80\% in the rice-producing lowcountry by 1740, directly importing the harsh
Barbados model
of slave society into the mainland. The extreme work regimen and prevalence of disease led to high mortality rates among the enslaved.

North Carolina
: Attracted a more diverse group of settlers, many migrating south from Virginia or Quakers seeking religious freedom. Early governance efforts to impose feudal visions met strong resistance, exemplified by "Bacon’s-style" resistance to taxes and attempts to establish the Anglican Church. The region eventually shifted away from feudal social fantasies due to the independent spirit of yeoman farmers and the practical realities of small-scale agriculture, focusing more on naval stores and tobacco.

Barbados model influence and the spread of slave society into the mainland
: The highly exploitative and racially stratified slave society established on sugar-rich Barbados served as a direct blueprint for South Carolina's rice economy. Barbadian planters, seeking new lands, brought their brutal labor systems and comprehensive slave codes, thereby accelerating the spread of deeply entrenched slave societies throughout the southern mainland colonies. \text{Barbados model; slave society spread}

Pennsylvania and William Penn (1681): Founded by William Penn, a Quaker, Pennsylvania was conceived as a "Holy Experiment" and a haven for religious freedom. Its Frame of Government (1681) was remarkably progressive, guaranteeing freedom of worship for all monotheists, political equality for property-owning men (regardless of religion), and a radical commitment to purchasing land from Native Americans through fair treaties, not conquest. This vision, combined with fertile land, attracted an extraordinarily diverse influx of European settlers, including Quakers, Germans, Scots-Irish Presbyterians, and other dissenting groups, rapidly making it one of the most populous and prosperous colonies. \text{Pennsylvania; Frame of Government}

The Navigation Acts and enforcement
: These Acts were strictly aimed at crippling Dutch and French commercial competition, coercing colonial trade exclusively into English channels, and ensuring that English ships manned by English crews dominated transatlantic commerce. They dictated that "enumerated goods" (like tobacco, sugar, and later rice) could only be shipped directly to England or other English colonies. While fostering robust imperial shipping networks and encouraging a degree of colonial compliance, significant gaps in enforcement and a powerful incentive for profit fueled rampant smuggling and generated persistent tension between colonial merchants and imperial authorities. \text{Navigation Acts enforcement}

The Dominion’s collapse and the Glorious Revolution’s aftermath
: News of the Glorious Revolution in England sparked immediate revolts in Boston, Salem, and New York (Leisler's Rebellion in NYC). These uprisings dismantled the Dominion of New England and challenged existing colonial hierarchies. In 1692, Massachusetts received a new royal charter, which, while restoring an elective assembly, also made the governor a royal appointee and mandated religious toleration, ending Puritan control. The British government also established the Board of Trade in 1696 to strictly oversee colonial affairs, demonstrating a renewed, though often inconsistent, imperial commitment. Despite these efforts at control, local autonomy generally expanded under the overarching, yet often loosely applied, mercantilist framework. \text{Revolts; Board of Trade; new charters}

The South Atlantic System
: Its most intensive economic centers were the sugar islands of the Caribbean (e.g., Barbados, Jamaica) and the vast sugar plantations of Brazil (under Portuguese control). Sugar was undeniably the flagship crop, demanding a uniquely brutal and intense form of slave labor. The entire massive structure of sugar production and trade was financed by substantial European capital (especially from London and Amsterdam) and managed by powerful Dutch and English merchants. Slave traders, operating from major port cities like Liverpool and Bristol, profited immensely from the vast and dehumanizing transcontinental exchange network that brought millions of Africans to forced labor. \text{Caribbean-Brazil sugar; slave labor; capital}

The slave trade’s demographics and Africa’s transformation
: Between 1520 and 1870, an estimated 11 million Africans were forcibly transported across the Atlantic. Approximately 14\% died during the horrific Middle Passage, resulting in about 1.5 million deaths at sea. The vast majority of survivors were destined for grueling labor in the sugar, rice, and tobacco plantations of the Americas. While a substantial number arrived in the mainland colonies, the overwhelming majority (over 70\%) of enslaved Africans were sent to Brazil and the West Indies. This massive demographic drain and forced migration had devastating and lasting impacts on African societies, transforming economies, social structures, and political landscapes, and giving rise to new slave-trading states. \text{Slave mortality: 14\%; voyage deaths; regional distribution}

Life and culture of enslaved Africans in the mainland
: Enslaved Africans in the Americas came from a diverse array of West and Central African ethnolinguistic groups (e.g., Kongo, Angola, Yoruba, Igbo, Akan). Despite the brutal imposition of slavery, early plantation communities ingeniously formed families (though often separated by sale) and actively preserved and blended African traditions. African naming practices, various languages and dialects (which often evolved into creole languages), diverse religions (sometimes syncretized with Christianity), and a rich tapestry of cultural practices in music, dance, and storytelling persisted and adapted. This creative blending resulted in new, vibrant cultural syntheses that became foundational to American identities. \text{African ethnolinguistic diversity; family formation}

Slavery in the Chesapeake vs. South Carolina and the West Indies:

Chesapeake (Virginia, Maryland)
: Characterized by
tobacco
mono-culture, a relatively less brutal climate than the sugar islands, and a significantly lower ratio of slaves to white settlers in the early period. Consequently, there was some
natural population growth
among the enslaved, alongside continued imports. The proportion of enslaved people steadily rose from around 20\% in 1720 to about 40\% by the 1740s. While still horrific, the conditions often allowed for greater possibility of
family formation
and relatively longer lifespans compared to the extreme mortality rates on sugar islands, fostering the emergence of a continuous African American culture.

South Carolina (rice)
: Defined by the intensive cultivation of
rice
in inland swamps, leading to an
extreme brutality
of labor, exceptionally high mortality rates from disease and overwork, and a rapidly expanding
slave majority
by the 1730s–1740s (reaching ~80\% in prime rice regions). The arduous nature of rice cultivation in hot, humid, disease-ridden environments, combined with the often-absentee ownership of planters, meant that enslaved people from West Africa's Gold Coast and Gambia (regions with prior experience in rice cultivation) were highly sought after. These conditions fostered distinct
slave communities
that developed with exceptionally strong African cultural retention, including Gullah language and creolized spiritual traditions. \text{Chesapeake slavery; South Carolina slavery; rice economy}

Slave resistance, control, and revolts:

Stono Rebellion (1739)
: As noted, this was a large, organized uprising in South Carolina that demonstrated the potential for coordinated resistance, but was ultimately defeated by a well-armed militia. Its immediate consequence was the enactment of even
harsher slave codes
and tightened societal controls on enslaved populations across the southern colonies, particularly in South Carolina, increasing surveillance and restricting movement and assembly.

Beyond overt rebellions, slaves engaged in numerous
resistance strategies
. These included day-to-day negotiation for better conditions, intentional slow work, feigning illness, sabotage of tools or crops, and flight. Family formation itself was a subtle act of resilience. Some individuals ran away to towns, blending into free Black populations, or formed small, often unstable
Maroon-like groups
in remote frontier areas. However, large-scale revolts were inherently difficult to organize due to dispersed settlements, sophisticated surveillance by white patrols, lack of weapons, and the severe penalties for resistance. \text{Resistance strategies}

The Northern Maritime Economy and urban growth (New England and Mid-Atlantic):

The
West Indian trade
served as the lifeblood connecting New England and the Mid-Atlantic colonies to the lucrative South Atlantic System. Northern merchants supplied the sugar islands with essential provisions like bread, fish, cattle, and lumber, receiving molasses and sugar in return. Major port cities like New York, Philadelphia, Boston, Newport, and Charleston developed as crucial centers of trade, finance, and urban growth. By 1750, Philadelphia had a population of approximately 30{,}000 (by 1776), New York around 18{,}000, and Boston about 15{,}000, with Newport and Baltimore also growing significantly. These cities fostered diverse
maritime industries
, including shipbuilding (colonial-built ships formed about \frac{1}{3} of the British merchant fleet by 1750), rope-making, barrel production (cooperage), and rum distilling.

The
Middle Atlantic and New England maritime networks
became increasingly intertwined with the profits generated by the West Indian slave economy. Complex systems of
credit and bills of exchange
were vital, financing everything from slave purchases on the African coast to the provisioning of plantations and the manufacturing of goods dependent on colonial raw materials. This economic integration solidified the North's indirect, yet significant, participation in the broader slave system. \text{Urban growth; port economies; bills of exchange; credit networks}

The Rise of Colonial Self-Government within a Mercantile Framework:

Following the Glorious Revolution,
colonial assemblies
experienced a substantial expansion of power. They effectively challenged royal governors' prerogatives by gaining control over taxation, appropriation of funds, and local appointments. The elevation of these representative assemblies reflected a growing belief in popular consent and fostered significant innovations in local governance. Examples include the increasingly assertive parliaments in colonies like New Jersey and the powerful House of Burgesses in Virginia, which frequently clashed with royal authority to protect colonial interests. \text{Assemblies gain power}

Salutary neglect
played a crucial role, allowing assemblies to develop robust political autonomy and a distinct sense of self-governance, even as imperial authorities theoretically maintained strict mercantilist aims. This unique political environment laid crucial groundwork for the future revolutionary tensions, as colonists grew accustomed to a high degree of legislative independence. \text{Autonomy under salutary neglect}

The
Currency Act (1751)
, which restricted the issuance of paper money by New England colonies (and later all colonies), and the broader debates over land banks and colonial paper currency, clearly illustrate growing
colonial resistance
to imperial monetary policy. These acts were Crown attempts to curb what it perceived as depreciated paper money and maintain British economic control, but were fiercely resented by colonists who relied on local currency for trade and debt settlement. \text{Currency Act 1751}

The
War of Jenkins’s Ear and the War of the Austrian Succession
: These imperial wars spurred significant colonial mobilization and demonstrated the colonies' military capabilities. Notably, the strategic French fortress of
Louisbourg fell to New Englanders in 1145
, a major colonial triumph. However, its subsequent return to France in the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748 caused widespread resentment and argued forcefully for greater colonial influence in imperial policy-making, as colonists felt their sacrifices were disregarded for European diplomatic expediency. \text{Louisbourg 1745 \text{–} 1748}

Important People and Figures (Roles and Impacts)

Canassatego (Onondaga speaker)
: A highly prominent Iroquois orator and diplomat whose speeches emphasized shared interests with colonists, particularly concerning defense, but also issued stern warnings about the deceptive and long-term consequences of land deals and treaties. His sophisticated diplomacy was instrumental in shaping and maintaining the strategic
Covenant Chain
alliances with New York and Pennsylvania, leveraging Iroquois strength between competing European empires. \text{Canassatego}

William Penn
: The Quaker founder and proprietor of Pennsylvania, a forward-thinking colonial leader who envisioned a "Holy Experiment." His innovative
Frame of Government (1681)
promoted radical concepts for its time: religious liberty for all, political equality for property-owning men, and a unique commitment to fair land purchases from Native Americans. His principles attracted a mass migration of diverse European settlers, making Pennsylvania one of the most successful and rapidly growing colonies in North America. \text{William Penn; Frame of Government}

James II and the Dominion of New England
: The English king whose attempts at centralized imperial control in the colonies, particularly through the creation of the Dominion, were deeply unpopular. His autocratic rule and Catholic sympathies fueled widespread fear and resentment in England and the colonies, leading to his overthrow in the Glorious Revolution, which in turn contributed directly to the expansion of colonial self-rule. \text{James II; Dominion of New England}

William of Orange and Mary II
: The "Protestant monarchs" who ascended to the English throne during the
Glorious Revolution
. Their rule solidified a constitutional monarchy, curtailed the absolute power of the Crown, and greatly empowered Parliament. Their principles of limited government and legislative supremacy profoundly influenced colonial politics, strengthening arguments for inherent rights and representative governance in America. \text{William of Orange; Mary II}

The Lords of Trade and Board of Trade
: Initial advisory bodies established by the Crown to centralize imperial oversight of colonial affairs. The
Board of Trade
, specifically created in 1696, was tasked with monitoring colonial trade, enforcing navigation acts, appointing royal officials, and generally bringing greater order to the decentralized empire. Although often lacking effective power, it reflected the Crown's enduring desire for greater control, particularly evident in policy shifts toward renewed imperial control in the 1740s and 1750s. \text{Board of Trade}

Olaudah Equiano and contemporary slave narratives
: Equiano was an influential former enslaved African whose autobiography,
The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano
(1789), vividly recounted the horrors of the Middle Passage and the brutality of slavery. Along with other contemporary slave narratives, his work served as powerful anti-slavery discourse, highlighting the moral bankruptcy of the institution and profoundly shaping later abolitionist thought and movements in Britain and America. \text{Equiano}

Connections to Foundational Principles and Real-World Relevance

The
Glorious Revolution
provided the immediate context and philosophical underpinnings for significant political changes in the colonies. John Locke’s
Two Treatises on Government
(1689), which articulated ideas of
consent of the governed, natural rights
(life, liberty, and property), and the right of rebellion against tyrannical rule, became profoundly influential. These concepts informed colonial rhetoric and demands for greater assembly power, laying ideological groundwork for the American Revolution. \text{Locke; Two Treatises}

The
South Atlantic System
starkly illustrates how mercantilist economic logic directly translated into a colossal global slave-based economy. This system generated enormous wealth for European nations and colonial elites, driving industrial growth and capital accumulation, while simultaneously entrenching brutal labor systems, perpetuating appalling human misery, and establishing racially stratified social orders across continents. It raises enduring ethical questions about the costs of economic development, fundamental human rights, and the uneven distribution of benefits and burdens within global trade systems.

The
Covenant Chain and Native diplomacy
reveal the complex interplay of Indigenous politics with broader European imperial strategies. Far from being passive victims, Native American nations like the Iroquois actively leveraged European rivalries and wars to preserve their autonomy, gain diplomatic advantages, and protect their lands, demonstrating significant agency within overlapping imperial structures. However, these alliances were often fraught with coercion, leading to problematic land deals and escalating military conflicts that ultimately undermined Native sovereignty.

The gradual
rise of colonial self-government
and the simmering
tensions over taxation and governance
within the mercantilist framework deeply foreshadowed a broader struggle for political legitimacy and autonomy. This culminated in the American Revolutionary events later in the century. The intricate interplay between restrictive mercantilist policy, evolving colonial economies, and increasingly powerful local governance structures demonstrates a complex and often unstable balance of power within the British Atlantic world, ultimately unsustainable in the long term.

Key Data and Quantitative References (selected)

Timeframe of the chapter: 1660 to 1750, encompassing a crucial period of imperial consolidation and colonial development within the broader Atlantic epoch, which extended through later conflicts like the Seven Years' War. 1660\text{-}1750

Lancaster conference with Iroquois: June–July of 1744; a significant instance of public diplomacy and complex negotiations involving land claims and defensive alliances, highlighting the ongoing importance of Native American diplomacy.

The Covenant Chain and Iroquois diplomacy: An ongoing and critically important relationship stretching from the mid-17th century well into the 18th century, with the Lancaster conference representing a key node within this broader, continuous diplomatic system. 17\text{th\text{–}}18\text{th centuries}

South Atlantic System centers: Primarily Brazil (Portuguese) and the West Indies (British, French, Spanish, Dutch); primary cash crops were sugar, tobacco, and rice, which drove the slave economy.

Slavery demographics:

Between 1520 and 1650: Approximately 820{,}000 Africans were transported by the Portuguese, initiating the transatlantic slave trade on a large scale. This period was followed by significant Dutch and then dominant British involvement in the trade by the late 17th century. 1520\text{-}1650; 820{,}000

Between 1700 and 1800: Approximately 2.5 million Africans were transported by the British alone to the Americas, a significant acceleration of the trade.

Total in transatlantic slave trade
: An estimated 11 million Africans were forcibly transported. The
Middle Passage mortality rate
was approximately 14\%, which accounts for around 1.5 million deaths during the voyage itself. Surviving Africans were disproportionately sent to Brazil and the West Indies, though a substantial and growing number arrived in the mainland British colonies.

Of the estimated 11 million, about 4.8 million went to Brazil, 2.5 million to the British Caribbean, 1.6 million to the French Caribbean, 0.5 million to the Dutch Caribbean, and 0.4 million to the British mainland. 11 \times 10^6; 14\%; 1.5 \times 10^6

Population shares in the slave colonies:

By 1710, Africans already formed a majority in some key regions, particularly in the Caribbean sugar islands. In the crucial rice-growing lowcountry of South Carolina, the enslaved population reached an alarming 80\% of the regional population by 1740. 80\%

Slavery demographics in Chesapeake vs. South Carolina:

Chesapeake
: By 1720, slaves constituted approximately 20\% of the population; this figure rose to about 40\% by 1740. The region experienced some natural increase among its enslaved population, promoting the development of multi-generational families.

South Carolina
: By 1710, enslaved Africans outnumbered white settlers. By 1740, the enslaved population in the rice regions stood at approximately 80\%, reflecting the intense, high-mortality labor demands of rice cultivation and continuous imports. 20\% \text{ and } 40\%; 80\%

Port populations and urban growth by the 1750s: Philadelphia grew to approximate population of 30{,}000 by 1776 (making it the largest city), New York around 18{,}000, and Boston about 15{,}000. Charleston and Newport, while smaller, were also significant port cities, with Providence and Baltimore rapidly developing as vital trade hubs. 30{,}000; 18{,}000; 15{,}000

Shipbuilding and merchant networks: By 1750, colonial-built ships comprised approximately one-third \left(\frac{1}{3}\right) of the entire British merchant fleet, demonstrating the significant industrial capacity and economic contribution of the American colonies to the broader empire. \frac{1}{3} \text{ of fleet; } 1750

Major crops and yields: Sugar profits for planters often exceeded 10\% annually, indicating the immense profitability that fueled the South Atlantic System. The global market for these commodities was of an immense and unprecedented scale, driving sustained demand for enslaved labor. 10\%

Key Implications and Critical Takeaways

The Atlantic world during this period was transformative; it did not merely connect continents but fundamentally restructured political authority, economic life, and social hierarchies. The South Atlantic System, in particular, generated immense wealth for Europe and colonial elites while simultaneously entrenching brutal labor systems, creating enduring racialized social orders, and causing profound human misery and demographic disruption across continents. This carries significant
economic and moral implications
that persist to this day. \text{Economic and moral implications}

The period vividly demonstrates a dynamic and often contentious interaction between
local autonomy and imperial control
. Salutary neglect, for a time, allowed the colonies substantial freedom to innovate politically, socially, and economically. However, imperial wars (like the War of Jenkins's Ear) and various parliamentary acts (e.g., Navigation Acts, Currency Act, Woolen, Hat, and Iron Acts) repeatedly re-centered British control when European geopolitical rivalries demanded greater revenue and strategic discipline from the colonies. \text{Autonomy vs. control}

The
legacies
of this era are profound and enduring: deeply entrenched racialized slavery, an integrated transatlantic market economy, significant urban growth, and the development of robust traditions of colonial self-government. These foundational elements directly laid the groundwork for later debates about liberty, natural rights, and legitimate governance, which ultimately culminated in the American Revolution. The historical interplay between the ideals of liberty and the grim reality of slavery became a central paradox for the fledgling American nation. \text{Legacy of liberty and slavery}

Connections to Prior Knowledge and Further Reading

If you have studied earlier chapters on the foundations of mercantilism and initial colonial settlements, compare and contrast the evolution of governance in this period. Observe the shift from looser colonial governance to more assertive assemblies and, later, renewed imperial control in the 1740s and 1750s. The persistent tensions between local power (exercised by colonial assemblies) and Crown prerogatives (asserted by royal governors and Parliament) represent a recurring and critical theme throughout imperial history.

For a deeper understanding, crucial
primary sources
include: Canassatego’s speeches (to grasp Native diplomatic shrewdness), William Penn’s
Frame of Government
(to understand foundational Quaker ideals), and Olaudah Equiano’s narrative (to apprehend the lived horrors of the Middle Passage and slavery). These diverse perspectives offer powerful insights into how different groups experienced these complex, macro-historical processes.

Study Prompts and Exam-Relevant Questions

Explain comprehensively how the South Atlantic System intricately linked Africa, the Caribbean, and the British mainland. Discuss in detail its profound economic and social consequences for both Britain and the American colonies, ensuring you include specific references to key crops, the dynamics of slave labor, and associated mortality rates.

Describe the pivotal role of Native American alliances, with particular attention to the Covenant Chain, within the broader British imperial strategy and the process of colonial development. How did these complex alliances influence patterns of frontier violence, inter-colonial relations, and diplomacy?

Compare and contrast the distinct characteristics of slavery in the Chesapeake region with slavery as practiced in South Carolina and the West Indies. What specific environmental, economic, and demographic factors produced these different labor regimes, varied mortality rates, and divergent demographic outcomes for enslaved populations?

Outline the chronological sequence and causal factors behind major shifts in colonial governance: the establishment of the Dominion of New England, its collapse following the Glorious Revolution, the role of the Board of Trade, the era of salutary neglect, and the pronounced shift toward renewed imperial control in the 1750s. What were the long-term consequences of these shifts for colonial autonomy and stability?

Access critically the ethical implications of the South Atlantic System: Weigh the significant economic benefits afforded to Europe and colonial elites against the immeasurable human costs borne by enslaved Africans and the profound, transformative impact on African societies.

Summary of Chapter Trajectory

This chapter meticulously traces the detailed creation and evolution of a deeply interconnected Atlantic economy and a complex political framework. It examines the significant rise of colonial self-government operating within the constraints of a mercantilist imperial system, and crucially, analyzes the profound, transformative impact of the slave-based South Atlantic System on transatlantic trade, the diverse societies of the British colonies, and the overarching imperial policy. The narrative emphasizes the intricate interplay of diplomacy with powerful Native nations, recurrent imperial wars, and expanding economic networks as critical forces shaping early American history in the period from 1660 to 1750.

Timeline Highlights (selected)

1651
: Enactment of the First Navigation Act, primarily designed to curb Dutch mercantile competition and assert English control over colonial trade. 1651

1660–1685
: The reign of Charles II, a period marked by significant expansion of English colonies in North America following the Restoration.

1663
: The Carolina proprietorship granted, leading to the settlement of the Carolinas.
1664
: New Netherland is seized from the Dutch and becomes New York and New Jersey, significantly expanding English territorial control.
1681
: William Penn receives his grant for Pennsylvania, establishing a new, distinct colony based on Quaker principles. 1663; 1664; 1681

1684–1689
: The period of the unpopular and ultimately failed Dominion of New England, an attempt by James II to centralize colonial administration.
1688–1689
: The Glorious Revolution in England leads to the overthrow of James II and has significant repercussions for colonial governance. 1684\text{-}1689; 1688\text{-}1689

1696
: The Board of Trade is established to improve imperial administration and oversight of the colonies. Various Navigation Acts continue to be passed or re-affirmed throughout this period:
1673
Staple Act,
1699
Woolen Act,
1732
Hat Act,
1733
Molasses Act (aimed at the French West Indies),
1750
Iron Act, and
1751
Currency Act (a restriction on colonial paper money in New England, later extended). 1696; 1673; 1699; 1732; 1733; 1750; 1751

1704–1715
: Creek–Spanish Florida campaigns, highlighting ongoing conflicts and alliances on the southern frontier involving Native Americans and European powers.
1713
: The Treaty of Utrecht concludes the War of the Spanish Succession (Queen Anne’s War), reshaping colonial boundaries and power dynamics. 1704\text{-}1715; 1713

1739
: The Stono Rebellion, a major slave uprising in South Carolina that led to harsher slave codes.
1745
: The Siege of Louisbourg, where New England militiamen captured the strategic French fortress.
1748
: The Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle concludes the War of the Austrian Succession (King George’s War), returning Louisbourg to France, much to colonial dismay.
1750s
: Pre-war preparations escalate as imperial rivalries intensify, leading to significant mercantile realignments and a renewed British focus on imperial control, foreshadowing the Seven Years' War. 1739; 1745; 1748; 1750s

This comprehensive set of notes aims to capture both the broad arc and the rich specifics of the chapter on the British Atlantic World, 1660–1750. It includes major events, key players, critical quantitative benchmarks, and thoroughly explores the ethical and political complexities of this pivotal era, offering a detailed understanding crucial for academic study.

Appendix: Key Information Summary
Important People

  • Canassatego (Onondaga speaker): Influential Iroquois orator and diplomat; emphasized shared interests, warned about land deals; instrumental in Covenant Chain alliances.

  • William Penn: Quaker founder of Pennsylvania; created the Frame of Government (1681), promoting religious liberty, political equality for property-owning men, and fair land purchases from Native Americans.

  • James II: English king whose attempts at centralized imperial control through the Dominion of New England were unpopular; his overthrow led to the Glorious Revolution.

  • William of Orange and Mary II: Protestant monarchs who ascended after the Glorious Revolution; solidified constitutional monarchy, empowered Parliament, and influenced colonial governance.

  • Peter (the Lords of Trade and Board of Trade): Central bodies established to oversee colonial affairs and manage imperial control, particularly the Board of Trade (1696).

  • Olaudah Equiano: Former enslaved African and author of a powerful autobiography highlighting the horrors of the Middle Passage and slavery, shaping abolitionist thought.

Important Dates

  • 1520–1870: Overall timeframe of the Transatlantic Slave Trade (approximate).

  • 1651: First Navigation Act enacted to curb Dutch trade.

  • 1660–1685: Reign of King Charles II; marked by significant expansion of English colonies.

  • 1663: Carolina proprietorship granted.

  • 1664: New Netherland seized by the English, becoming New York and New Jersey.

  • 1673: Staple Act passed as part of the Navigation Acts.

  • 1681: William Penn receives his grant for Pennsylvania; Frame of Government established.

  • 1684–1689: Period of the Dominion of New England.

  • 1688–1689: Glorious Revolution in England.

  • 1696: Board of Trade established to improve imperial administration.

  • 1699: Woolen Act passed.

  • 1704–1715: Creek–Spanish Florida campaigns.

  • 1710: The Four Indian Kings diplomatic mission to London.

  • 1713: Treaty of Utrecht concludes the War of the Spanish Succession.

  • 1714–1750: Era of "Salutary Neglect" (approximate).

  • 1732: Hat Act passed.

  • 1733: Molasses Act passed.

  • 1739: Stono Rebellion in South Carolina.

  • 1739–1741: War of Jenkins’s Ear.

  • 1740–1748: War of the Austrian Succession (King George’s War).

  • 1744: Lancaster conference (June–July) with the Iroquois.

  • 1745: Siege of Louisbourg by New Englanders.

  • 1748: Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, returning Louisbourg to France.

  • 1750: Iron Act passed.

  • 1751: Currency Act passed, restricting colonial paper money.

Important Events

  • First Navigation Act: Initiated British mercantilist policies to control colonial trade.

  • English Imperial Expansion (1660s): Charles II's land grants and acquisitions (Carolinas, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania) reshaped the colonial map.

  • Dominion of New England: James II's attempt to centralize colonial control, met with strong resistance and ultimately failed.

  • Glorious Revolution: Political upheaval in England leading to constitutional monarchy and increased colonial self-governance.

  • Establishment of the Board of Trade: Effort to streamline imperial oversight of the colonies after the Glorious Revolution.

  • South Atlantic System: Integrated slave-based economy centered on sugar, tobacco, and rice, linking Europe, Africa, and the Americas.

  • Middle Passage: The brutal transatlantic voyage endured by enslaved Africans.

  • Stono Rebellion (1739): Significant slave uprising in South Carolina, leading to harsher slave codes.

  • War of Jenkins’s Ear and War of the Austrian Succession: Anglo-European conflicts with colonial involvement, impacting imperial policy and loyalties.

  • The Four Indian Kings Mission (1710): Early Native American diplomatic mission to London, highlighting alliance-building.

  • Rise of Colonial Assemblies: Gradual but significant increase in power and influence of colonial representative bodies.

  • Salutary Neglect: British policy of lax enforcement that allowed colonies greater autonomy.

  • Covenant Chain: Long-standing alliance and diplomatic framework between the Iroquois Confederacy and New York, shaping frontier relations.

  • Various Navigation Acts Enforcement: Legislative efforts to enforce mercantilism, control colonial trade, and restrict colonial manufacturing activities (e.g., Woolen, Hat, Iron, Molasses, and Currency Acts).