CHAPTER 13

Physical and Cognitive Development in Early Adulthood

Primary and Secondary Aging

  • Primary aging: This is defined as the basic, underlying, and inevitable aging process that occurs regardless of environmental factors.
  • Secondary aging: This refers to aging that results from environmental influences, health habits, or diseases. It is not innate and shows variation based on lifestyle and circumstances.
  • Interaction with Social Class: Age interacts significantly with social class, suggesting that individuals from different socioeconomic backgrounds may age differently.
  • Role of Emotions: Emotional well-being is intertwined with aging; emotions play an important role in the aging process.

Lifestyle & Longevity

  • Fiber Intake: Consuming 20-30 grams of fiber per day is linked to increased lifespan.
  • Exercise: Engaging in moderate physical activity contributes positively to longevity.
  • Weight Management: Maintaining a healthy weight is crucial for reducing risks related to cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and hypertension.
  • Alcohol Consumption: Limiting alcohol intake is advisable; specifically, no more than 2 drinks in a single day and no more than 14 drinks per week.
  • Cannabis Use: Use of cannabis has been related to various health risks, including dementia, respiratory diseases, psychosis, psychomotor disorders, and motor vehicle accidents.

Quick Check: Aging

  • Question: Which is an example of secondary aging?
    • A. Gradual loss of muscle mass with age
    • B. Decline in VO₂ max over time
    • C. Cardiovascular disease due to poor diet
    • D. Reduced brain volume in adulthood

Apply the Concept

  • Question: Which statement best reflects primary aging?
    • A. Aging effects can be reversed with lifestyle changes
    • B. Aging is entirely due to environmental exposure
    • C. Aging includes inevitable biological changes
    • D. Aging only occurs after age 40

The Brain and Nervous System in Early Adulthood

  • Synaptogenesis: New synapses are being created in the brain during early adulthood.
  • Myelination: The process of myelination continues to occur, enhancing the speed and efficiency of neural communication.
  • Neuronal Death: Some old connections die off as the brain restructures itself for efficiency.
  • Brain Replacement: Certain parts of the brain can replace those that die, showing a level of plasticity.
  • Environmental Challenges: The brain operates under challenging environments which can influence its development and function.
  • Brain Volume: The brain begins to lose volume as one ages, indicating neural loss over time.

Body Systems: Heart and Lungs

  • Aerobic Fitness Measurement: The maximum oxygen uptake (VO₂ max) is the most common measure of overall aerobic fitness.
  • Decline in VO₂ max: This capability declines with age, associated with the following factors:
    • Loss of arterial elasticity.
    • Calcification of the heart valves.
    • These declines may reflect cumulative effects of a sedentary lifestyle.

Reproductive Capacity

  • Women’s Health: Increased risk of miscarriage and complications arises for women in their 30s.
  • Fertility Decline:
    • Women's fertility declines from early to late 30s.
    • Men's fertility can diminish from ages 40 to 50.
    • Diminished sperm count has also been observed in later life.

Immune System Functioning

  • Two key organs in the immune system are:
    • Thymus Gland: Important in the maturation of T cells.
    • Bone Marrow: Critical for producing different types of immune cells.
  • Types of immune cells:
    • B Cells: Play a role in fighting external threats.
    • T Cells: Defend against internal threats and decline with aging.
  • Aging impacts immune system functioning:
    • Fewer antibodies are produced with age, though it is unclear if this is due to primary or secondary aging.
    • Life experiences may influence immune system health.

Brain Development

  • Question: Which statement best describes brain changes in early adulthood?
    • A. Brain growth stops completely
    • B. No new neural connections form
    • C. Synapses form while some connections are pruned
    • D. Brain function declines rapidly

Physical Functioning

  • Question: What is the best explanation for declines in VO₂ max?
    • A. Sudden organ failure
    • B. Loss of arterial elasticity and sedentary lifestyle
    • C. Immediate aging after adolescence
    • D. Decrease in intelligence

Health Habits in Early Adulthood

Researchers have identified seven health habits critical for well-being:

  1. Never having smoked.
  2. Limiting alcohol to less than 5 drinks in one sitting.
  3. Sleeping 7-8 hours per night.
  4. Regular exercise.
  5. Maintaining a desirable weight for height.
  6. Avoiding snacks between meals.
  7. Eating breakfast on a daily basis.

Safe Sex Practices

  • Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs):
    • Prevalence is high among individuals aged 5 to 29.
    • Types of STIs:
    • Bacterial STIs
    • Viral STIs
    • Parasitic STIs
    • Highest infection rates occur among young adults, with risky behaviors contributing significantly.
    • Many individuals are unaware of the symptoms associated with STIs, especially during transitional periods between partners that are less than three months.
    • Notable STIs include Human Papillomavirus (HPV) and Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV).

Intimate Partner Violence

  • Definition: Any physical or sexual violence, stalking, and/or psychological aggression exhibited by current or former partners or spouses.
  • Domestic Abuse Statistics:
    • 65% of adults first victimized between the ages of 18 and 34.

Gender Differences in Intimate Partner Violence

  • Physical Altercations: Both men and women may engage in pushing, slapping, or kicking during domestic disputes.
  • Medical Records: Women are statistically more likely to suffer injuries during assaults.
  • Global Variation in Rates: There are significant variations in rates of abuse reported globally:
    • Women are four times more likely to be assaulted with a firearm than men.

Mental Health in Early Adulthood

  • Psychological Disorders: Many disorders begin to present during adolescence and can be influenced by personality traits and family vulnerabilities.
  • Anxiety: Anxiety disorders are common, especially during major life transitions; however, they may not always indicate a diagnosable psychological disorder.

Anxiety Disorders

  • Characterized by an inability to function effectively in academic, social, and occupational settings.
  • Types of Anxiety Disorders:
    • Phobias: Defined as irrational fears regarding particular objects, people, places, or situations.
    • Phobias usually develop through learned associations.
  • Interventions: Focus on extinguishing triggers associated with anxiety.

Depressive Disorders

  • Major Depressive Disorder: This condition affects approximately 21% of young adults aged 18-30.
  • Suicide Risk: About 53% of young adults experiencing major depressive disorder contemplate suicide.
  • Substance Abuse Link: More than 60% of individuals with depressive disorders report binge drinking habits.
  • Long-Term Outcomes: 40% of young adults may show no signs of depression one year later, while 20% experience slight, ongoing depressive symptoms.
  • Bipolar Disorder: This includes alternating periods of depression and manic episodes, affecting around 2% of adults.

Schizophrenia

  • Symptoms include disturbances of thought and may involve:
    • Delusions: Strongly held false beliefs.
    • Hallucinations: Perception of nonexistent stimuli (e.g., hearing voices).
  • Individuals with schizophrenia often lose the ability to function in work, school, or social settings and may endanger themselves or others, leading to frequent hospitalizations.
  • Treatment: Antipsychotic medications are often prescribed for management of symptoms.

Substance Use Disorder

  • Alcohol/Substances: Use peaks between ages 18 and 30, with higher rates predominantly among males.
  • Binge Drinking: More common among young adults and attributed to social norms of risky behavior
  • Substance Use Disorder Criteria: Defined as involving impaired functioning in academic, occupational, and social settings.
    • Statistics: Approximately 15% of individuals aged 12 and older meet criteria for substance use disorder, with over 70% involving alcohol.
    • Criteria include:
    • Impaired control over use.
    • Social problems arising from use.
    • Risky use behaviors.
    • Physical drug dependence.

Cognitive Changes in Early Adulthood

  • Intellectual processes tend to peak in early adulthood.
  • Decline Characteristics: The decline is slow and varies widely among individuals. Factors affecting this variability include:
    • Environmental Factors: Such as lifestyle choices and educational opportunities.
    • Heredity: Genetic predispositions can influence cognitive ability and patterns of decline.

Postformal Thought

  • Piaget's Concept: The transition to postformal thought as a fifth stage following formal operational thought is marked by:
  • Lawrence Kohlberg & William Perry: Their research emphasizes the relationships formed during cognitive development and education’s impact on thought progression.

Relativism in Thought

  • Some propositions cannot be adequately asserted as strictly true or false, leading to a relativistic approach to knowledge.
  • Evaluation of Conflicts: Push an individual’s thinking towards recognizing deeper assumptions.

Dialectical Thought

  • Proposed by Michael Basseches, this thought process represents a shift from purely logical reasoning to a more nuanced understanding of issues.
  • Examples: Teaching young adults to consider complex questions such as whether an aging parent should enter a nursing home.
  • Metacognition: This capacity facilitates the development of dialectical thinking.

Reflective Judgment

  • Developed by Patricia King and Karen Kitchener, reflective judgment entails the ability to recognize different perspectives on controversial issues.
  • Stages of Development: Reflective judgment develops through a series of seven stages, showcasing increasing maturity in reasoning.

Intelligence and Cognition

  • Twin Studies: Highlight that heredity contributes to variations in intelligence.
  • Stability of Scores: Childhood intelligence scores can predict adult scores; intelligence remains stable across life but also shows continuity and change.
  • Types of Intelligence:
    • Crystallized Intelligence: Represents knowledge gained through education and experience.
    • Fluid Intelligence: Involves more basic cognitive abilities and has a higher likelihood of decline.

The Seattle Longitudinal Study

  • Warner Schaie: Conducted a 50-year study examining intellectual functioning in adulthood.
  • Findings:
    • Cross-sectional research indicated a steady drop in IQ scores.
    • Longitudinal studies revealed that overall scores tend to rise during early adulthood and remain stable until about age 60.

Postsecondary Education

  • Statistics: 63% of U.S. high school students pursue postsecondary education immediately after graduation.
  • Positive Developmental Outcomes: College attendance is associated with enhanced developmental benefits and cognitive growth.

Postformal Thinking

  • Question: What is a defining feature of postformal thought?
    • A. Thinking becomes strictly logical
    • B. All problems have one correct answer
    • C. Ability to integrate multiple perspectives
    • D. Loss of reasoning ability

Types of Intelligence

  • Question: Which type of intelligence is most likely to decline in early adulthood?
    • A. Crystallized intelligence
    • B. Vocabulary knowledge
    • C. Fluid intelligence
    • D. Cultural knowledge

Developmental Impact of Education

  • Increased education is linked to:
    • Higher cognitive function.
    • Offset against the risks of cognitive decline and depression.
  • Educational achievement influences life goals, shaping academic and vocational aspirations.
  • Socialization Opportunities: Engaging in higher education provides enhanced socialization experiences.

Diversity in the College Experience

  • Advantages of Post-secondary Education: Relevance and accessibility extend to all demographic groups, though experiences differ based on gender, ethnicity, and race.
  • Students with Disabilities: Encounter unique challenges in educational settings, influencing their overall experience and completion rates.

Completing College

  • Completion Rates: Only 59% of students complete their college education.
  • Attrition Rates: 20-30% of students withdraw each year, and 66% do not return to finish their degree.
  • Reasons for Leaving:
    • Change in life goals: 40% of students report this as a reason.
    • Financial difficulties account for 19% of withdrawals.
    • Mental health struggles contribute to 14% of students leaving.

Gender Differences in Education

  • Women: More than 50% of college freshmen are female. Women often report financial barriers to pursuing college degrees but tend to have higher completion rates and better academic performance.
  • Men: Often perceive a lesser need for a degree or show disinterest in the pursuit of education. Men display higher rates of binge drinking and sometimes assert their masculinity through disengagement from academic activities, illustrating a complex interplay between gender identity and educational engagement.