Comprehensive Study Guide: Ancient Dynasties, Late Bronze Age Diplomacy, Indigenous Urbanism, and African Civilizations

Complete Chronology of Chinese Dynasties

The political history of China is structured through a succession of major dynasties, interregnums, regional kingdoms, and imperial states spanning from the third millennium BCE to the early twentieth century CE:

• Xia Dynasty: 2070–1600 BCE
• Shang (Yin) Dynasty: 1600–1046 BCE
• Western Zhou Dynasty: 1046–771 BCE
• Eastern Zhou Dynasty: 770–256 BCE
  • Spring and Autumn Period: 770–476 BCE
  • Warring States Period: 476–221 BCE
• Qin Dynasty: 221–207 BCE
• Eighteen Kingdoms: 206–202 BCE
• Western Han Dynasty: 202 BCE – 9 CE, 23–25 CE
• Xin Dynasty: 9–23 CE
• Eastern Han Dynasty: 25–220 CE
• Three Kingdoms (Cao Wei, Shu, Wu): 220–280 CE
• Western Jin Dynasty: 266–311, 313–316 CE
• Sixteen Kingdoms: 304–439 CE
• Eastern Jin Dynasty: 318–420 CE
• Southern and Northern Dynasties: 386–589 CE
• Sui Dynasty: 581–619 CE
• Tang Dynasty: 618–690, 705–907 CE
  • Yan: 756–763 CE
  • Qi: 881–884 CE
• Wu Zhou Dynasty: 690–705 CE
• Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms: 907–979 CE
• Liao Dynasty: 916–1125 CE
• Northern Song Dynasty: 960–1127 CE
• Western Xia Dynasty: 1038–1227 CE
• Great Jin Dynasty: 1115–1234 CE
• Western Liao Dynasty: 1124–1218 CE
• Southern Song Dynasty: 1127–1279 CE
• Yuan Dynasty (Great Khan): 1271–1368 CE
• Northern Yuan Dynasty: 1368–1635 CE
• Ming Dynasty: 1368–1644 CE
• Later Jin Dynasty: 1616–1636 CE
• Qing Dynasty: 1616–1912 CE
  • Southern Ming: 1644–1662 CE
  • Shun Dynasty: 1644–1646 CE
• Taiping Heavenly Kingdom: 1851–1864 CE

Late Bronze Age Civilizations and Primary Sources

During the Late Bronze Age, complex societies expanded through technological innovations like the war chariot, migrations of Indo-European groups, elaborate trade networks, and sophisticated interstate diplomacy. Primary textual and material artifacts capture state affairs, economic transactions, religious beliefs, and social hierarchies.

Complaint Tablet to Ea-nāṣir (ca. 1750 BCE)

Excavated from a private residence in the Sumerian city of Ur (under Old Babylonian rule), this cuneiform archive belonged to a copper merchant named Ea-nāṣir. While his home contained various business records, it preserved a collection of customer complaints regarding substandard copper shipments, broken delivery promises, and financial mistreatment.

Transcript and Translation of UET V 81 (Nannî to Ea-nāṣir)

• Sender and Recipient: Written by Nannî to Ea-nāṣir.
• Transaction Details: Nannî sent messengers with his purse (kisum, representing invested capital in money and goods) across foreign/enemy territory (qaqqar nakrim) to receive promised top-quality copper ingots (gubari damqūtim) for Gimil-Sîn.
• Breach of Contract: Ea-nāṣir offered bad ingots (gubari la damqūtim) to Nannî's messenger, dismissing him with the statement: "If you will take it, take it; if you will not take it, go away."
• Financial Claims: Nannî notes that he paid 18\n\, \text{talents} of copper to the royal palace on Ea-nāṣir's behalf, and Šumi-abum likewise contributed $18\, \text{talents}$ of copper, in addition to issuing a sealed document to the temple of Šamaš.
• Legal Demands: Nannî refuses to accept inferior copper in Ur, stating that he will exercise his legal right in his court (kisallu) to inspect and select copper ingots (nasqūtam) one by one.

The Code of Hammurabi (ca. 1750 BCE)

Promulgated by King Hammurabi of the Old Babylonian Empire, this monumental basalt stele contains a comprehensive legal code outlining civil laws, commercial regulations, class-based punishments, and judicial procedures.

The Satire on the Trades (ca. 1900 BCE)

Composed during the Middle Kingdom of Egypt, this literary text—formally titled The Instruction of Khety—depicts a scribe named Duauf's son Khety taking his son Pepy south to the royal Writing School at the capital city of Thebes. Used continuously as a practice manuscript for scribal students, the text employs hyperbole and satirical humor to elevate scribal status above all manual trades:

• The Metalworker: Operates at the mouth of his furnace; his fingers resemble crocodile hide, and he stinks worse than fish-roe.
• The Craftsman / Carpenter: Handles the adze and is wearier than a field laborer; his field is wood and his job is metal. At night, he works past physical limits.
• The Stone Cutter: Seeks skill in hard stones; his arms are destroyed and exhausted. Sitting at sunset (the going in of Re), his thighs and back are completely cramped.
• The Barber: Continues shaving past dusk, wandering street to street to find clients to fill his belly.
• The Itinerant Merchant: Sails north down to the Delta; tormented and slain by gnats and sand flies, suffering from severe fevers and inflammation.
• The Small Building Contractor: Carries mud to make bricks; dirtier than vines or pigs. His clothes are stiffened with clay, his leather belt is ruined, and his lamp extinguishes while he crushes mud with his feet.
• The Gardener: Carries heavy vegetable loads on his neck; waters crops in the morning and vines in the evening. Mocked as "the sand fly of his mother."
• The Tenant-Farmer: Bound to the soil in perpetuity with endless accounting reckonings; weary, aching, and mockingly praised for safety from lions.
• The Weaver: Confined indoors with thighs pressed against his belly; cannot breathe open air. Beaten with fifty thongs if he cuts short his daily quota, and must bribe the doorkeeper to see daylight.
• The Embalmer: Hands are foul with corpse odors; eyes burn from intense heat. Spends his days cutting up old rags for mummy wrappings.
• The Laundryman: Launders on the riverbank next to crocodiles; exhausted and dirty.
• The Fish-Catcher: Works in crocodile-infested waters; incapacitated by fear, yet unable to use crocodiles as an excuse for failing his quota.
• Scribal Superiority: The scribe alone has no boss; he is the boss. Writing endures like the mountains.

The Amarna Letters (ca. 1353–1336 BCE)

Discovered at al-Amarna (ancient Akhetaten), the capital established by Pharaoh Akhenaten, this administrative archive contains roughly 380 diplomatic clay tablets written in Akkadian, the international diplomatic language (lingua franca) of Southwestern Asia and Egypt.

Diplomatic Correspondence Examples

• EA 10 (Burna-Buriaš II of Karduniaš/Babylon to Napḫurareya/Akhenaten):
  • Reaffirms dynamic state friendship established under Karaindaš.
  • Complains that a gift of $20\, \text{minas}$ of gold sent by Egypt yielded less than $5\, \text{minas}$ of pure gold when melted in a kiln, with the residue appearing as worthless ashes.
  • Requests lifelike wooden animal carvings (land or aquatic) crafted by skilled Egyptian carpenters.
  • Dispatches greeting gifts consisting of $2\, \text{minas}$ of lapis lazuli and a necklace of 1,048 cricket-shaped lapis lazuli gems for princess Mayati.
• EA 41 (Šuppiluliuma I of Ḫatti to Ḫuriya/Tutankhamun):
  • Reaffirms peace treaties and alliance established with the Pharaoh's father.
  • Requests two solid gold statues (one standing, one seated), two silver statues of women, a large piece of lapis lazuli, and a large stand.
  • Sends greeting gifts: 1 silver stag rhyton weighing $5\, \text{minas}$, 1 silver young ram rhyton weighing $3\, \text{minas}$, and 2 silver disks weighing $10\, \text{minas}$ representing nikiptu-trees.

Indus River Valley Stamp Seals (ca. 2800–1900 BCE)

Carved from steatite, Harappan stamp seals feature an undeciphered script alongside iconographic motifs. Designed to press into wet clay seals on trade packages, they produce mirrored, raised impressions. Recurring themes include the "Master of Animals" motif and the "unicorn bull" (a bull portrayed in profile with overlapping horns or a mythological creature).

The Hagia Triada Sarcophagus (ca. 1400 BCE)

Discovered on Crete, this limestone sarcophagus coated in plaster and painted in fresco illustrates Mycenaean funerary rituals using Minoan iconographic traditions:

• Front Panel: Shows a funerary ceremony for a deceased royal male, featuring libation pourers, lyre players, and attendants bearing sacral vessels and animal offerings.
• Reverse Panel: Depicts a priestess officiating at an altar while a sacrificial procession presents a bound cow.

Shang Dynasty Oracle Bones (ca. 1250–1050 BCE)

Engraved on ox shoulder blades (scapulae) and turtle plastrons, oracle bone inscriptions represent the earliest attested stage of Chinese writing. Diviners posed charges, applied intense heat to carved hollows until the bone cracked, and interpreted the fractures. Only the Shang king possessed the authority to validate the prognostication.

Specific Oracle Bone Inscriptions

• Item 6 (dingmao, Day 4): Divined if the king joins general Zhi Guo to attack the Shaofang, he will receive ancestral assistance; cracked in the temple of Ancestor Yi (12th king).
• Item 8 (yiwei, Day 32): Gu divined if Father Yi (20th king, Xiao Yi) is causing harm to the king.
• Items 9A & 9B: Divined whether Grandfather Ding (15th king) is harming or not harming the king.
• Item 10: Inquiry regarding a toothache; determined that Father Yi is not harming the king's tooth.
• Items 15A & 15B (jiashen, Day 21): Que divined regarding Lady Hao's (consort of King Wu Ding) childbearing. The king prognosticated that birth on a ding-day or geng-day would bring luck, while a renxu-day birth would be unlucky. Verification: After 31 days, on jiayin (Day 51), she gave birth to a girl (evaluated as not good).
• Items 19A & 19B (renzi, Day 49 / guichou, Day 50): Zheng divined whether building or not building a settlement meets the approval of the high god Di.
• Items 20A & 20B (xinchou, Day 38): Que divined whether Di approves of the king's proposed action.
• Items 22A & 22B: Inquired whether Di is harming or not harming the agricultural harvest.
• Items 23, 24A & 24B: Inquired if Di ordered the Fang enemy to cause disaster and attack, confirming the necessity to raise troops.
• Item 25 (jiachen, Day 41): Zheng divined if attacking the Ma-fang enemy will cause Di to grant assistance.

Archaeology of Indigenous Urban Origins in the Middle Niger

Historically, Western urban scholarship defined urbanism through trait lists emphasizing monumental architecture (citadels, ziggurats, temples, pyramids), state-enforced forced labor (corvée), and written administrative records (e.g., Northam, Wittfogel, Weber, Sjoberg, Jacobsen, Childe, Kenyon). These criteria led historians to assume that urban centers did not exist in sub-Saharan West Africa prior to Arab-sponsored trans-Saharan trade networks in the late ninth century CE.

Archaeological research at Jenne-jeno (Mali) refutes this diffusionist framework, proving that indigenous, non-monumental urbanism developed in the inland Niger Delta prior to external contact.

Quantitative Models for Urban Identification

Rather than evaluating sites by architectural monuments, urban systems are recognized by their performance of specialized regional functions in relation to a surrounding hinterland.

The Rank-Size Rule

Human geography models show that integrated urban systems display a mathematical relationship between settlement rank ($r$) and population ($P_r$):

$P_r = P_1 \times \frac{1}{r}$

Expressed logarithmically, the relationship forms a straight line:

$\log(P_r) = \log(P_1) - \log(r)$

Where:

• $P_1$ = Population (or area) of the largest primary city.

• $P_r$ = Population (or area) of a site at rank $r$

• $r$ = Rank order of the settlement.

• Primate Distribution: Occurs when the top-ranked city is disproportionately larger than all secondary sites, signaling colonial dependency, economic imperialism, or early incipient urbanism.

• Rank-Size Distribution: Displays a continuous curve of few large sites and many smaller sites, signaling a mature, functionally integrated urban system.

Artefact Diversity vs. Site Scale

Archaeological surveys demonstrate a direct linear correlation between site surface area and artefact diversity (measured by surface occurrences of iron-smelting furnaces, slag, brick, spindle whorls, terracotta statuettes, copper, and cowrie shells), establishing hierarchical functional integration across regional settlements.

Occupational Chronology of Jenne-jeno

Situated on a $33\, \text{ha}$ tear-shaped tell rising $8\, \text{m}$ above an abandoned channel of the Bani River, Jenne-jeno was occupied continuously from 250 BCE to 1400 CE across four primary phases:

• Phase I/II (250 BCE – 300 CE): Initial settlement by iron-using populations. By 100 CE, the site spanned $25\, \text{ha}$. Inhabitants built pole-and-mat houses plastered with mud. Diet was based on fish, reedbuck, domesticated cattle, and domesticated crops: African rice (Oryza glaberrima), pearl millet, and sorghum.
• Phase III (300–800 CE): Rapid expansion to peak urban size ($33\, \text{ha}$ for Jenne-jeno proper; $42\, \text{ha}$ when combined with the connected northern tell Hambarketolo). Features include crowded cemeteries, tauf (coursed mud) transitioning to unfired mud brick architecture, stone beads, standardized sandstone grinding slabs, copper ornaments, and gold jewelry (including a gold earring pre-dating 800 CE).
• Phase IV (800–1400 CE): Construction of a major city wall during the late first millennium CE measuring $3.6\, \text{m}$ wide at its base, built of cylindrical mud bricks. The wall provided flood protection, trade control, and civic identity. Jenne-jeno entered a period of decline and complete abandonment by 1400 CE.

Abandonment Dynamics

The abandonment of Jenne-jeno was driven by economic shifts toward the nearby Islamic city of Jenné (founded around the eighth century CE, with its ruler Koi Kombora converting to Islam between 1200 and 1300 CE). By 1468 CE, Songhay conqueror Sonni Ali garrisoned troops in the ruins of Jenne-jeno (Zoboro).

Demographic and Hinterland Analysis

Comparative population density evaluations across modern settlements in the inland Niger Delta provide demographic baselines for Jenne-jeno:

• Jenné Density: $221\, \text{persons/ha}$ (includes open public space).
• Gomitogo Density: $389\, \text{persons/ha}$ (traditional dense residential layout).
• Regional Average Density: $237\, \text{persons/ha}$ across 15 hinterland settlements.

A systematic regional survey across $1,100\, \text{km}^2$ identified 404 archaeological mound sites. Over 75% were abandoned by 1400 CE. Plotting site size against site rank produces a rank-size curve rather than a primate curve, confirming that Jenne-jeno was the apex of an indigenous urban hierarchy well before Arab contact.

Long-Distance Trade Networks

Lacking native stone and iron ore, Jenne-jeno relied on regional trade networks:

• Iron: Bloomery iron ore imported from Benedougou (San region, $>50\, \text{km}$ southeast).
• Copper: Saharan ore imported from Akjoujt, Nioro, or Aïr by the fifth century CE.
• Agricultural Exports: Inland Delta surplus (dried fish, fish oil, African rice) traded north to Saharan contact points (Tirekka, Tadmekka) in exchange for Saharan salt and copper.

Ancient African Civilizations and Cultural Traditions

Deep linguistic, archaeological, and cultural evidence defines four ancient African cultural traditions that emerged prior to the development of widespread agriculture.

Timeline of Cultural Emergence

• Khoesan Tradition: ca. 19,000 BCE (Southern/Eastern Africa)
• Afrasian Tradition: ca. 15,000 BCE (Horn of Africa, Red Sea Hills, Nile Delta)
• Middle Nile Nilo-Saharan Tradition: ca. 11,000 BCE (Middle Nile Basin)
• Niger-Congo Tradition: ca. 9,000 BCE (West African Savanna and Forest Belt)

Afrasian (Afroasiatic) Civilization

Emerging in the Horn of Africa, Afrasian societies were organized around clan structures:

• Kinship Systems: Patrilineal descent predominated across most branches, though matrilineal descent persisted in the Chado-Amazigh branch (notably among the Tuareg).
• Religious Leadership: Ritual duties were guided by a hereditary officiant known in Cushitic as the *wap'er. The *wap'er possessed religious authority as an intercessor with the clan deity, but held no secular political authority.
• Henotheism: Afrasians practiced henotheism—allegiance to a specific community clan deity while recognizing the existence of deities in other clans. Relicts of this system persisted among Omotic groups in Ethiopia and ancient Semitic peoples (e.g., Yahweh as an ethnically restricted deity). Harmful spirits explained theodicy (the problem of evil).
• Ritual Practices: Adolescent male circumcision marked the transition to adulthood. Brought across the Sinai into the Levant, it became embedded in Judaism and Islam (where Southwestern Asian Semitic groups shifted the practice to infancy). Clitoridectomy developed later in some sub-groups.
• Material and Expressive Culture: Rectangular flat-roofed mud houses characterized Erythraite settlements. Expressive culture prioritized swaying body movements, footwork, single melodic/rhythmic lines, and stringed instruments (lyres). Drums were absent in early Afrasian traditions.

Nilo-Saharan and Sudanic Civilizations

Nilo-Saharan groups occupied the tropical steppes and plains of the Middle Nile Basin:

• Early Middle Nile Religion (Nontheistic): Early communities held nontheistic beliefs centered on an animating force (arum in Uduk), concentrated in the liver and regulated by conscious restraint (kashira') in the stomach. Disembodied arum from unburied individuals or slain wild animals caused evil.
• Northern Sudanians and Sudanic Monotheism (after 8500 BCE): Transhumant cattle pastoralists in the Eastern Sahara developed a monotheistic religion centered on a single Divinity (God) associated with the sky, rain, and lightning. Manifestations were viewed as hypostases of the single Divinity, and evil was understood as divine retribution. Ancestors had no active ritual role.
• Material Culture: Utilized stone blades, hunting spears, digging sticks, and round houses with cone-shaped thatch roofs. Invented ceramic pottery as early as 8500 BCE.

Niger-Congo Civilization

Originating in West Africa, early Niger-Congo societies established distinct cultural and social institutions:

• Kinship and Residence: Matriclans with matrilineal descent, matrilocal/uxorilocal residence (husbands moving to the wife's village), and bride-service obligations.
• Leadership: Guided by a lineage priest-chief (*o-kumo in proto-Benue-Kwa), who presided over ancestor ceremonies, allocated land, adjudicated internal disputes, and represented the community.
• Religious Beliefs: Recognized a distant Creator God (*Nyambe in proto-Benue-Kwa), localized territorial spirits (dwelling in rivers and drainage basins), and venerated ancestor spirits. Evil stemmed from ancestral neglect or living malice ("witchcraft"). A specialized doctor-diviner diagnosed spiritual causes, prescribed herbal remedies, or expelled malicious individuals.
• Customs and Personal Art: Adolescent male circumcision; intricate hair braiding ("cornrows").
• Technology and Expressive Arts:
  • Woodworking: Carving single-log canoes, drums, and figure sculptures/masks (e.g., Chiwara antelope motifs and Igbo masks).
  • Textiles: Barkcloth (beaten tree bark), palm-mats, baskets, and later raffia cloth.
  • Music and Dance: Polyrhythmic percussion utilizing multi-pitched drums beaten simultaneously, energetic body dance, and elaborate mask performances.
  • Settlement: Linear single-street village layouts; rectangular floor plans with gable roofs constructed from woven palm thatch.

Khoesan Tradition

Prevalent across Southern and Eastern Africa:

• Social Organization: Mobile bands based on bilateral kinship reckoning, without formal lineages, clans, or hereditary chiefs.
• Livelihood and Crafts: Foraging, gathering, and hunting using bows, arrows, and weighted digging sticks. Built temporary, dome-shaped hemispherical huts.
• Religion: Nontheistic belief in an underlying spiritual power tapped through trance-dance rituals led by shamanistic healers.
• Visual and Musical Arts: Extensive rock painting and engraving traditions; stringed instruments with footwork-focused dancing.

Comprehensive Synthesis of Major African Cultural Traditions (ca. 5000 BCE)

Taxonomy of African Linguistic Groupings

Afrasian Peoples

• Southern Afrasians: Omotic peoples (Kafa, Bench, Nao, Ometo).
• Erythraite Branch:
  • Cushites:
    • Northern Cushites: Bedauye, Medjay.
    • Agaw.
    • Eastern Cushites: Highland Eastern Cushites (Hadiya, Dawaro), Dullay, Lowland Eastern Cushites (North Lowland East Cushites [Afar], Baz, Omo-Tana [Jiddu, Soomaali: Maxay, Dir, Isaaq, Darood], Ajuraan, Garree, Konsoromo, Oromo, Konso).
    • Southern Cushites: Ma'a (Gumba?), Dahaloans, Rift Southern Cushites (Tale, Iringa, Kw'adza, Iraqw, Burunge).
  • Northern Erythraites: Ancient Egyptians, Copts.
  • Chado-Amazigh Peoples:
    • Amazigh Peoples: Kabyle, Libyans, Zenaga, Tuareg, Nasmonians?, Garamantes?.
    • Chadic Peoples: Hausa, Wandala.
• Semitic Peoples: * South Arabians (Saba'). * Ethiopic groups (Amhara, Ge'ez). * Arabs.

Nilo-Saharan Peoples

• Koman Peoples: Uduk.
• Central Sudanians:
  • East Central Sudanians: Balese-Mamvu, Medje-Lombi (Mangbetu), Moru, Madi, Lugbara.
  • West Central Sudanians: Bongo-Bagirmi (Bagirmi, Bulala, Sara).
• Northern Sudanians:
  • Kunama.
  • Saharo-Sahelians:
    • Saharans: Zaghawa, Bodele group, Tibu, Kanuri (Kanem, Bornu).
    • Sahelians: For (Darfur).
    • Western Sahelians: Songhay.
    • Maba (Wadai).
    • Eastern Sahelians: Meroites, Nabta Playa people, Nubians (Nobadia, Alodia), Daju, Sog, Rub.
  • Nilotes:
    • Western Nilotes: Jieng (Dinka), Naath (Nuer), Luo, Ocholo.
    • Eastern Nilotes: Ateker, Maa-Ongamo (Ongamo, Maasai).
    • Southern Nilotes: Kalenjin (Marakwet, Sirikwa), Tato (Datoga).

Niger-Congo Peoples

• Mande Peoples: Bozo, Marka, Manding (Mali, Segu, Kaarta), Soninke (Wagadu, Jaara), Susu, Mende.
• Atlantic Peoples: Wolof (Jolof), Fula (Takrur), Temne, Dyola, Gola.
• Kru Peoples.
• Gur Peoples: Mossi.
• Ijo.
• Adamawa and Ubangian Peoples: Nzakara, Ngbandi, Zande.
• Benue-Kwa Peoples:
  • Volta-Comoe: Guang, Dagomba, Akan, Ga, Dangme, Krobo.
  • Benin.
  • Yoruba (Ife, Oyo).
  • Igbo, Ibibio, Akpa, Igala, Nupe, Dahomey.
  • Bantu Peoples:
    • Nyong-Lomami, Boans, Nyali, Sangha-Nzadi, Mongo, Kuba, Bolia, Teke (Tyo), Loango, Kongo.
    • Savanna-Bantu: Njila (Kimbundu, Matamba, Ndembu, Mbwila, Imbangala), Ovimbundu, Lunda, Lwena, Kavango-Southwest-Bantu (Kwangari), Southwest-Bantu (Mataman, Herero, Ovambo, Humbe, Kwanyama), Lubans (Luba, Kanyok, Songye, Kaonde), Luyana, Botatwe (Ila, Tonga, Lenje), Sabi (Bemba, Bisa, Lala, Lamba, Nsenga).
    • Mashariki Bantu (Kaskazi Peoples): Great Lakes Bantu (Kitara, Bunyoro, Buganda, Nkore, Butweju, Mpororo, Luyia, Burundi, Rwanda, Takama), Upland Bantu (Thagicu: Gikuyu, Kamba; Segeju, Daiso, Chaga, Ugweno), Northeast-Coastal Bantu (Seuta: Shambaa; Ruvu: Doe, Sagala; Asu, Sabaki: Mijikenda, Swahili; Rufiji-Ruvuma Bantu), Yao, Rukwa peoples, Njombe peoples, Muteteshi, Salumano.
    • Kusi Peoples: Nyasa (Nyanja, Chewa, Malawi), Makua, Sala-Shona (Sala, Shona, Toutswe), Southeast-Bantu (Venda, Nguni: Zulu, Xhosa, Mpondo; Sotho: Rolong, Kwena, Kgatla).

Khoesan Peoples

• Hadza.
• Sandawe.
• Southern Khoesan: Tuu, Zhu, Khwe, Kwadi, Khoekhoe (Cape Khoekhoe, Chochoqua, Inqua, Gqona, Gariep River Khoekhoe, Nama, !Ora).

Other Ethnolinguistic Groups

• Batwa: Original linguistic affiliations unknown.
• Eburrans: Descendants include Okiek (Kalenjin-speaking since 800–1000 CE).
• Robberg and Oakhurst Cultures: Linguistic affiliations unknown.
• Malagasy: Belongs to the Austronesian language family.