Study Notes on Middle and Late Byzantine Art

MIDDLE AND LATE BYZANTINE ART

• The production and veneration of icons developed rapidly in the sixth century.

  • In Byzantine culture, icons were viewed similarly to relics, regarded as trustworthy representations of the divine.

  • Icons were more accessible for devotions than relics.

  • Rituals for veneration of icons included:

    • Proskynesis (prostration before the image).

    • Placement of candles around the base of the icon.

  • Some icons were believed to be acheiropoietai, meaning "not made by human hands."

  • These could be miraculous impressions on cloth or stone.

  • Legend states that Saint Luke was the first artist to paint a portrait of the Virgin Mary.

  • The aim of the icon painter was to faithfully duplicate the prototype, as deviations diluted the true image.

  • This practice led to copies of prior images throughout Byzantine history.

ICONOCLASM

• Evidence suggests worshippers believed icons possessed miraculous qualities; they could protect or heal during crises.

  • Icons served as palladiums, offering communal security, akin to the ancient statue of Pallas Athena, which was said to protect Troy.

  • Veneration of icons blurred lines between likeness and idol worship, a point contested by critics who argued this practice violated divine worship's spirituality.

  • Critics cited the second commandment (Exodus 20:4) against graven images.

  • They held that icons closely resembled pagan idols, fearing that their veneration could devolve into idolatry.

  • Iconoclasts contended that icons—being human-made—did not warrant reverence as they lacked divine contact, unlike relics.

• Defenders of icons (iconodules, iconophiles) argued for their didactic role:

  • "An image is, after all, a reminder; it is to the illiterate what a book is to the literate, and what the word is to hearing, the image is to sight" (John of Damascus, Oratio 1).

  • They maintained that while icons do not partake of the true substance of their prototypes, they serve as channels for believers to express love and honor for those depicted.

  • Genesis 1:27 states "God created man to His own image," suggesting that humans could envision God in human form.

  • Icon painters participated in a divine creative act by reproducing this reflection.

• The Incarnation further underscored this argument, emphasizing Mary's role.

  • Theodore the Studite (A.D. 759-826) argued for the importance of depicting Christ, questioning how the Son of God could be recognized as human if representations were rejected.

• In 692, the Quinisext Council in Constantinople stated that Christ should be visually represented in images according to his human character, departing from traditional symbolism (the ancient Lamb).

• Opposition to icons escalated under imperial policies known as iconoclasm, ignited when Leo III took power in 717.

  • Scholars suggest that Leo's upbringing near Islamic cultures, which prohibited sacred representation, influenced his views on icons.

  • Under Constantine V (741-75), iconoclasm reached its peak; icons were destroyed, and churches stripped of mosaics.

  • The first edict against icons was reportedly issued as early as 726.

    • The Iconoclastic Council of 754 banned all figurative imagery of Christ in churches, arguing that the divine nature is uncircumscribable and cannot be represented.

  • Possible motivations for the opposition include:

  • Justinian II's assertion of the Church's authority, disrupting the balance of caesaropapism.

  • Military emperors sought to reassert control over churches and monasteries, targeting their wealth and influence.

• Persecution of monks who defended icons intensified under Constantine V (762-768);

  • ortifices of iconoclasm led to a cessation of icon production in Constantinople.

  • Mosaics of saints were replaced with simple decorative elements or crosses.

• Upon Leo IV's reign (775-80), iconoclast policies persisted until Empress Irene reversed them in 780.

• The seventh Ecumenical Council in Nicaea (787) reinstated icon veneration, but this was short-lived.

• Emperor Leo V reimposed policies in 813, leading to further destruction and the flight of monastic artisans to Western Europe.

  • Under John the Grammarian's leadership, this resurgence of iconoclasm claimed that icons distract and cannot convey knowledge, requiring verbal explanations.

  • In response, iconophiles like Photios argued that icons create mental images of Christ and guide faithful behavior, thus serving legitimate spiritual purposes.

THE TRIUMPH OF ORTHODOXY

• Iconodule Empress Theodora played a crucial role in restoring icon veneration on March 11, 843, known as the "Feast of Orthodoxy."

  • This event marked the beginning of a second golden age for Byzantine art.

  • Important restorations included:

    • A prominent image of the Virgin enthroned in Hagia Sophia, accompanied by an inscription stating that the pious emperors restored what the imposters had cast down.

• Patriarch Photios, in a sermon delivered in Hagia Sophia, emphasized the importance of visual representations in faith, drawing parallels to the verbal communication of the Gospels.

• The restoration of icon veneration was symbolically solidified through the replacement of icons on church gates and increases in their observance.

• The interaction of Byzantine art with trade, military conquests, and diplomacy facilitated the transmission of artistic styles to Western Europe and Islamic regions.

• Byzantine scholarly activities flourished under the Macedonian dynasty, particularly with the reopening of the Academy of Constantinople.

• Under the leadership of Patriarch Photios, the Church maintained its distinct leadership, culminating in the schism with Rome in 1054.

ARCHITECTURE AND CHURCHES

• The monastic model during the Middle Byzantine period established norms for religious architecture:

  • Typical church design centered on a Greek cross-in-square plan, often with a dome at the crossing.

  • Small monastic churches reflected simplicity while accommodating existing communities and their practices.

• The Katholikon of Hosios Loukas exemplifies the clarity of the Greek cross plan and its intimate construction.

• Decorations typically featured rich mosaics, engravings, and identification with larger religious themes.

• Churches like the Church of the Dormition at Daphni (c. 1080) prominently feature exquisite mosaics and iconography that exhibit the theological spirit of Byzantine art.

MOSAICS AND IVORIES

• Mosaics in churches, particularly those in Hagia Sophia, were methodically reintroduced and remain sites of significance in understanding Byzantine artistry.

• The extensive use of mosaics to depict biblical themes continues throughout this period, offering a visual narrative of Christian theology and worship practices.

FRESCO PAINTING

• Fresco painting emerged as a cost-effective alternative to mosaics around the twelfth century, seen in churches throughout Cyprus and the Balkans.

PANEL PAINTING

• The twelfth century saw new iconographic subjects and innovative formats in icon painting, merging narrative and portraiture into single compositions.

• Divine themes were often enhanced by depictions of saints, further intertwining spirituality and visual devotion.