Explain two models or theories of one cognitive process with reference to research studies.
Introduction
Discuss the cognitive process of memory.
Define the two main memory models:
- Multi-Store Model (MSM): proposes that memory consists of three stores: sensory memory, short-term memory (STM), and long-term memory (LTM).
- Working Memory Model (WMM): focuses on the structure of short-term memory, consisting of a central executive and multiple subsystems.
Note the two models to be supported with studies: MSM and WMM.
Studies that Apply
Atkinson & Shiffrin: introduced the Multi-Store Model (3-Box memory model).
Glazner & Cunitz: demonstrated that STM and LTM memories are stored in different parts of the brain through studies of recall and interference.
Corkin and Milner: provided evidence through case study of patient HM, supporting the idea that STM and LTM are distinct.
Baddeley & Hitch: created the Working Memory Model which includes:
- Central Executive: directs attention and processing.
- Phonological Loop: auditory information storage and rehearsal.
- Visuospatial Sketch Pad: visual and spatial information processing.
Laundry and Bartling: supported the WMM by examining how distractions affect recall.
C2: Schema Theory
Outline schema theory with reference to research studies.
Introduction
Bartlett: introduced schema theory, suggesting that knowledge and memories are organized in mental structures called schemas.
Different types of schemas:
- Scripts: expectations for routine activities.
- Self-Schemas: beliefs and ideas about oneself.
- Social Schemas: generalizations about groups and social norms.
Studies that Apply
Bartlett: used the ghost story study to demonstrate how schemas affect memory recall.
Brewer & Treyens: conducted the office study showing how expectations influenced memory of an office environment.
Bransford & Johnson: illustrated how context and schema activation can aid memory retention (laundry study).
C3: Thinking and Decision-Making
Explain thinking and decision-making with studies that support these processes.
Introduction
Define thinking as the cognitive process of manipulating information.
Define decision-making (DM) as the process of selecting a choice from alternatives.
Define Heuristics: mental shortcuts used in decision-making:
- Availability Heuristic: judging the likelihood of events based on how easily examples come to mind.
- System 1: intuitive, fast, and emotional processing.
- System 2: rational, slower, and more deliberate thinking.
Studies that Fit
Kahneman & Tversky: illustrated System 1 thinking through various cognitive biases.
Englich & Mussweiler: examined System 2 thinking in the context of legal judgments.
Kahneman & Tversky: further explored decision-making biases in their 2000 study.
C4: Reliability of Cognitive Processes
Explain the reliability of one cognitive process pertaining to bias/influences on thinking and decision-making.
Introduction
Explain how cognitive shortcuts lead to bias in confirming pre-existing beliefs.
List factors involved in biased thinking:
- Personal experiences, cultural influences, and cognitive biases.
Define framing bias: the way information is presented affects decisions.
Define anchoring bias: reliance on the first piece of information encountered when making decisions.
Studies that Fit
Kahneman & Tversky (1974): demonstrated anchoring bias using numerical estimations.
Kahneman & Tversky (1986): showed framing effects in decision-making regarding gains and losses.
Englich & Mussweiler: provided evidence for anchoring effects in legal settings.
C5: Reliability of Memory as a Cognitive Process
With reference to relevant research studies, explain how one cognitive process is reliable.
Introduction
Explain the cognitive process of memory.
Discuss Eyewitness Testimony (EWT) and its connection to memory reliability.
Explain Reconstructive Memory: the idea that memories are not static but reconstructed, often leading to inaccuracies.
State how reconstructive nature can make memory unreliable.
Studies that Apply
Loftus & Palmer: explored the effects of leading questions on EWT.
Bartlett: contributed to understanding constructive memory through his schema theory studies.
Brewer & Treyens: examined how context affects memory reconstruction.
Neisser & Harsch: studied EWT, showing inaccuracies in memories of high-emotion events.
Brown & Kulik: investigated flashbulb memories and their reliability over time.
C6: Interaction of Cognitive and Biological Factors in Emotion
Describe how cognitive and biological factors interact in emotion.
Introduction
Ekman et al. (1972): identified six fundamental emotions consistent across cultures:
- Fear
- Anger
- Surprise
- Sadness
- Happiness
- Disgust
Introduction to Cognition and Emotion
Define Cognition: the mental processes of acquiring, processing knowledge through thought, experiences, and senses.
Theories of Emotion:
- Lazarus' Appraisal Theory: evaluates emotional responses as either positive or negative, influenced by cognitive appraisal through mechanisms in the hippocampus and amygdala.
- Brown & Kulik’s Flashbulb Memory Theory: describes how emotionally significant events create vivid, sometimes inaccurate memories, involving the amygdala.
Flashbulb Memory (FBM)
Define Flashbulb Memory: a type of emotional memory characterized by vivid and detailed recollections of highly emotional events, akin to a memory captured by a camera flash.
Explain FBM:
- Brown & Kulik (1977): posited that FBM is elicited by unexpected, important emotional events, thereby distinguished from ordinary memories, which are often selective, unreliable, and malleable.
Unique features of FBM include greater vividness, accuracy, consistency, and longevity compared to regular memories.
Brown & Kulik: contributed fundamental evidence for FBM theory.
Neisser & Harsch: investigated the reliability of FBMs over time, noting common inaccuracies.
C7: Research Methods in the Cognitive Level of Analysis (CLOA)
Explain how and why particular research methods are used at the CLOA.
Introduction
List the research methods used:
1. Experiment: controlled environment to test specific hypotheses.
2. Correlation: measures relationships between variables.
3. Longitudinal: studies the same participants over time for developmental insights.
4. Survey/Interview: gathers qualitative data from subjects.
5. Case Study: in-depth investigation of an individual or group.
Explanation of Methods
Discuss specific applications of each method:
1. Experiment: Used by Baddeley, Loftus & Palmer, Kahneman & Tversky, and Glazner & Cunitz.
2. Longitudinal: Focuses on studies like HM to observe cognitive changes over time.
3. Survey/Interview: Essential in studies like Brown & Kulik, Neisser & Harsch.
4. Case Study: Used to provide detailed insights regarding individuals like HM.
C8: Ethical Considerations in Research Methods at CLOA
Discuss ethical considerations related to research methods used at the CLOA.
Introduction
Ethical considerations include:
- P: Prevention of physical or mental harm may not be guaranteed.
- I: Importance of informed consent.
- C: Ensuring confidentiality of participant data.
- W: Right to withdraw from the study at any time.
- D: Importance of debriefing participants after the study.
- D: Necessity to avoid deception, or at least manage it ethically.
Studies that Apply
Loftus & Pickrell: studied false memories with ethical concerns regarding consent and deception.
Brown & Kulik: examined emotional pain associated with recalling memories, raising ethical implications in health.
HM: ethical issues related to informed consent, deceptive practices, and the inability to withdraw or debrief.
Englich & Mussweiler: raised concerns about deception in the legal context.
Speisman: focused on the potential for psychological harm through stress in an experimental context.
Brewer & Treyens: dealt with deception in reporting memory recall.
Loftus and Palmer (Car Crash): evaluation of deception regarding the nature of the experiment and potential impact on participant consent.