Comprehensive Study Notes on Power-Sharing

Introduction to Power-Sharing in Democracies

• Fundamental Principle: In a democracy, power is not concentrated in any single organ of the government. An intelligent distribution of power among the legislature, executive, and judiciary is essential to democratic design.

• Objective of Power-Sharing: It involves the distribution of decision-making authority across different levels and branches to ensure stability and represent the interests of diverse groups.

Case Study: Ethnic Complexity and Tensions in Belgium

• Geographic and Demographic Context:

  • Location: A small country in Europe, smaller in area than the Indian state of Haryana.

  • Borders: Shares borders with France, the Netherlands, Germany, and Luxembourg.

  • Population: Slightly over $1$ crore (approximately half the population of Haryana).

• Ethnic Composition:

  • Flemish Region: $59\%$ of the population; speaks the Dutch language.

  • Wallonia Region: $40\%$ of the population; speaks the French language.

  • German-speaking: The remaining $1\%$ of Belgians.

  • Brussels (Capital): Exhibits a reversed demographic split where $80\%$ are French-speaking and $20\%$ are Dutch-speaking.

• Socio-Economic Disparities and Conflict:

  • The French-speaking minority was historically relatively rich and powerful.

  • The Dutch-speaking majority resented this disparity, as they received the benefits of economic development and education much later.

  • This led to acute tensions between the two communities during the 1950s and 1960s, particularly in Brussels, where the national majority (Dutch) was a local minority.

• Definition of Ethnic: A social division based on shared culture. Members of the same ethnic group believe in a common descent due to similarities in physical type, culture, or both. They do not necessarily share the same religion or nationality.

Case Study: Diversity and Majoritarianism in Sri Lanka

• Geographic and Demographic Context:

  • Location: An island nation located a few kilometres off the southern coast of Tamil Nadu, India.

  • Population: Approximately $2$ crore (similar to Haryana).

• Major Social Groups:

  • Sinhala-speakers: $74\%$ of the population.

  • Tamil-speakers: $18\%$ of the population.

• Sub-groups of Tamils:

  • Sri Lankan Tamils: Native to the country ($13\%$); concentrated in the north and east.

  • Indian Tamils: Forefathers arrived from India as plantation workers during the colonial period ($5\%$).

• Religious Composition:

  • Most Sinhala-speakers are Buddhists.

  • Most Tamils are Hindus or Muslims.

  • Approximately $7\%$ are Christians, belonging to both Tamil and Sinhala groups.

Majoritarianism in Sri Lanka and its Consequences

• Definition of Majoritarianism: A belief that the majority community should be able to rule a country in whichever way it wants, disregarding the wishes and needs of the minority.

• Independence and Sinhala Supremacy: Sri Lanka became independent in 1948. The Sinhala majority sought dominance through several measures:

  • 1956 Official Language Act: Recognised Sinhala as the only official language, disregarding Tamil.

  • Preferential Policies: Favoured Sinhala applicants for university positions and government jobs.

  • State Religion: The new constitution stipulated that the state shall protect and foster Buddhism.

• Impact on the Tamil Minority:

  • Increased feelings of alienation.

  • Belief that the government and major political parties (led by Buddhist Sinhala leaders) were insensitive to Tamil language and culture.

  • Perception of discrimination in political rights and economic opportunities.

• The Road to Civil War:

  • Tamils launched parties and struggled for regional autonomy and equal opportunity.

  • By the 1980s, political organisations demanded an independent state called Tamil Eelam in northern and eastern Sri Lanka.

  • Definition of Civil War: A violent conflict between opposing groups within a country that becomes so intense it appears like a war.

  • Outcome: Thousands were killed on both sides; many fled as refugees; the social, cultural, and economic life of the country suffered a terrible setback. The conflict ended in 2009.

The Belgian Model of Accommodation

• Strategy: Between 1970 and 1993, Belgium amended its constitution four times to create an arrangement allowing all communities to coexist.

• Key Elements of the Innovation:

  • Equal Central Representation: The number of Dutch and French-speaking ministers in the Central Government must be equal. Special laws require support from the majority of each linguistic group to prevent unilateral decisions.

  • Devolution of Power: Many powers of the Central Government were given to State Governments of the two regions. State Governments are not subordinate to the Centre.

  • Brussels Government: The capital city has a separate government where both French and Dutch-speaking communities have equal representation.

  • Community Government: A third tier of government elected by people belonging to one language community (Dutch, French, or German), regardless of their residence. It holds power over cultural, educational, and language-related issues.

• Results: Helped avoid civic strife and potential partition. Brussels was eventually chosen as the headquarters for the European Union.

Why Power-Sharing is Desirable

• Prudential Reasons (Calculated Gains):

  • Conflict Reduction: Helps reduce the possibility of conflict between social groups, which often leads to violence and instability.

  • Political Stability: Ensures a stable political order.

  • National Unity: While the tyranny of the majority may seem attractive in the short run, it eventually undermines national unity and affects the majority adversely as well.

  • Definition of Prudential: Based on prudence or careful calculation of gains and losses, rather than purely moral considerations.

• Moral Reasons (The Spirit of Democracy):

  • Inherent Value: Power-sharing is the very soul of democracy.

  • Legitimacy: A legitimate government is one where citizens participate to acquire a stake in the system.

  • Right to Consultation: People have a right to be consulted on how they are governed.

Forms of Power-Sharing in Modern Democracies

• Horizontal Distribution of Power:

  • Power shared among different organs: Legislature, Executive, and Judiciary.

  • Checks and Balances: No organ can exercise unlimited power. Each organ monitors the others (e.g., judges appointed by the executive can check executive actions or legislative laws).

• Vertical Division of Power:

  • Power shared among governments at different levels: Federal/Central/Union Government for the country, and Provincial/State Governments for regions.

  • Includes lower levels like Municipalities and Panchayats.

• Power-Sharing among Social Groups:

  • Distributed among religious and linguistic groups (e.g., Belgium’s Community Government).

  • Reserved Constituencies: Socially weaker sections and women are represented in legislatures to prevent alienation (e.g., as practiced in India).

• Power-Sharing among Political Parties and Pressure Groups:

  • Competition: Ensures power does not remain in one hand.

  • Coalition Governments: When two or more parties form an alliance to contest elections or govern (e.g., Germany’s grand coalition between the CDU and SDP in 2005).

  • Interest Groups: Traders, businessmen, farmers, and industrial workers influence decision-making or participate in governmental committees.

Questions & Discussion

• Khalil’s Dilemma (Lebanon):

  • Context: Beirut leaders agreed to a power-sharing pact after a civil war. President (Maronite Catholic), PM (Sunni Muslim), Deputy PM (Orthodox Christian), Speaker (Shi’a Muslim).

  • Compromise: Christians won't seek French protection; Muslims won't seek unification with Syria.

  • Khalil's View: He wants a "normal" democracy where anyone with the most votes can lead, regardless of religion. Elders fear this would bring back bloodshed.

• Global Examples of Power-Sharing:

  • Judicial Intervention: Bombay High Court ordering the Maharashtra Government to improve children's homes (Horizontal/Checks and Balances).

  • Indigenous Rights: Ontario, Canada government reaching land settlements with aboriginal communities (Social Group Power-Sharing).

  • Political Alliances: Russian parties (Union of Right Forces and Yabloko) uniting for elections (Political Party Sharing).

  • Fiscal Federalism: Nigerian state finance ministers demanding revenue distribution formulas from the federal government (Vertical/Federal Sharing).