Small-Scale vs. Large-Scale Fisheries and Governance in the Philippines: Detailed Study Notes

Overview and Research Scope

This study, conducted by Michael Fabinyi (University of Technology Sydney), explores the intersection of two critical ocean policy processes: fisheries governance for sustainability and the relational dynamics between Small-Scale Fisheries (SSF) and Large-Scale Fisheries (LSF). Centered on the Philippines, the research investigates how three specific governance interventions interact with existing tensions between these two sectors. These interventions include:

Measures against illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing.
The implementation of closed seasons.
Initiatives to reorganize spatial regulations and fishing access.

The findings emphasize that governance outcomes are heavily influenced by how these interventions differentiate between and impact the relationships of key stakeholders.

Conceptualizing the SSF–LSF Relationship

Governance Trends and Fisher Livelihoods

Globally, governance initiatives (ranging from Marine Protected Areas to market-based instruments) have expanded, meaning fisher livelihoods are increasingly shaped by governance institutions. However, they remain profoundly influenced by the long-standing conflict between SSF and LSF.

Perspectives on Conflict

Literature characterizes the SSF–LSF relationship through several lenses:

Resource Scarcity and Distribution: Historically, conflict was viewed as competition over declining materials. Some states in the Global South responded by segregating sectors into separate spatial zones.
Marine Tenure and Competition: Scholars like Bavinck (2005) suggest conflicts stem from differing conceptions of marine tenure. Ayilu (2023) and Seto et al. (2023) highlight active competition and exclusion as drivers over and above simple scarcity.
Sustainability vs. Conflict: Policy concerns regarding sustainability often take precedence over the social dynamics of sector conflict.

Competing Sector Narratives

Social Science Perspective: Generally negative toward LSF (pointing to environmental impact and subsidy inequality) and positive toward SSF (highlighting lower per capita impact and social/economic contributions).
Neoclassical/Modernization Perspective: Focuses on economic efficiency. It frames SSF as less efficient and advocates for wealth generation through fewer, larger, and more "efficient" vessels using rights-based management.

The Policy Process in the Philippines

Fisheries management is not a linear, technical scientific process but occurs within a "politicized environment." In the Philippines, the policy process has been described as a "defective democracy" involving patrons, powerbrokers, and active civil society. Policy outcomes are often the result of "conjunctures" where various interests contest the implementation of environmental resources.

Legal Definitions in the Philippines

The national Fisheries Code provides a clear, government-mandated distinction:

Municipal (SSF): Refers to fishers with exclusive use of municipal waters, defined as those within $15\,km$ from the coastline. These vessels are categorized as having a weight of $3\,\text{gross tons}$ or less.
Commercial (LSF): Refers to vessels greater than $3\,\text{gross tons}$ , which are restricted to commercial waters beyond $15\,km$ from the coastline.

Sector Statistics (2021 Data)

Sector	Production Volume (MT)	Volume %	Production Value ('000 PHP)	Value %
LSF	$870,038.30$	$43\%$	$61,819,922.74$	$36\%$
SSF	$1,131,907.31$	$57\%$	$112,059,949.41$	$64\%$

Dietary Impact: Fishery products constitute approximately $12\%$ of the Filipino diet (approximately $34\,kg$ per person per year).
Industry Concentration:
* Tuna Industry: Centered in General Santos City; generates $38\%$ of LSF volume and $46\%$ of LSF value.
* Sardine Industry: Centered in the Zamboanga peninsula; generates $29\%$ of LSF volume and $12\%$ of LSF value.

Fisheries Governance Frameworks

Decentralization: Governance of municipal fisheries is managed by Local Government Units (LGUs) at the city or municipal level, per the Local Government Code (1991) and Fisheries Code (1998).
National Oversight: Commercial fisheries are managed at the national level by the Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (BFAR).
Key Challenges: Overcapacity, destructive methods (dynamite/cyanide), LSF incursion into municipal waters, and declining production volumes over the last decade.

Specific Policy Case Studies

1. Measures Against IUU Fishing

Estimated Scale: A USAID report estimated illegal fishing at $516,000$ to $766,000\,MT/year$ .
The VMS Debate (FAO 266): Issued in 2020, Fisheries Administrative Order (FAO) 266 mandated Vessel Monitoring Systems (VMS) for all commercial vessels to track incursions into municipal waters.
    * SSF Stance: Supported by groups like Pamalakaya to prevent LSF from exploitation of municipal resources.
    * LSF Stance: Challenged by the Alliance of Philippine Fishing Federations Inc. and the Inter-Island and Deep Sea Fishing Association. They claimed it violated privacy, threatened food security, and would lead to a fish shortage and price spikes.
    * Outcome: After legal contestation and a 2021 court declaration of invalidity in Malabon, the President directed BFAR to implement it in June 2023.
Fisheries Management Areas (FMA/FAO 263): Dividied waters into $12$ FMAs to promote ecosystem-based management and cooperation across administrative boundaries.

2. Closed Seasons

The Visayan Sea (FAO 167): Established a closure from mid-November to mid-March for sardines, herrings, and mackerel. Implementation was inconsistent across islands.
* Conflict: Resentment grew when municipal fishers were barred while commercial vessels were allegedly seen landing fish at markets, leading to accusations of corruption.
Zamboanga Peninsula Sardine Fishery: A 3-month closure (established 2011, reinforced 2014 by BFAR).
* Success: Viewed as an ecological/economic success. Because it targeted gears used by LSF, SSF were largely unaffected, and some municipal sardine fishers saw income increases.

3. Re-organizing Spatial Access

The "Big Brother-Small Brother" (BBSB) Partnership: A BFAR program allowing commercial vessels ( $3.1$ to $150\,\text{gross tons}$ ) to operate between the $10.1$ and $15\,km$ shoreline mark.
* Logic: Aimed to boost production and access "untapped" waters beyond SSF reach.
* Criticism: Viewed as allowing "big" vessels to "grab" fish from the "small" fishermen.
House Bill No. 7853 (2020): Proposed by a Cebu Congressman to expand operations of small/medium LSF into municipal waters (within the $10.1\,km$ boundary) to aid pandemic recovery.
* Resistance: A manifesto opposing the bill was signed by $1,665$ fisherfolk groups. The bill did not pass.

Synthesis and Discussion

Social Institutions: SSF–LSF relationships function as a social structure (similar to class or gender) that filters the effectiveness of policy.
Decentralization Tension: Allocation of fishing zones is a central reference point that fuels broader national vs. local government tensions. A 2018 Supreme Court ruling (implemented 2022) allocating more revenue to LGUs will further impact this dynamic.
Political Modeling: The article suggests that policymakers should move beyond economic modeling to include "political modeling"—analyzing the relational dynamics and potential flashpoints of stakeholder conflict.
Conclusion: Governance is never neutral or purely technical; it is always refracted through existing stakeholder relationships, which ultimately shapes the ecological and social outcomes of environmental policy.