Animal Anatomy and Physiology
Page 1
Title
Basic Principles of Animal Form and Function
Publisher: Pearson Education, Inc.
Copyright years: 2021, 2017, 2014
Page 2
Emperor Penguins
Habitat: Antarctica, known as Earth’s coldest and windiest continent.
Page 3
Internal Regulation in Animals
Key Question: How do animals regulate their internal state despite changing or harsh environments?
Page 4
Correlation of Form and Function
Essential Tasks for Animals:
Obtain nutrients and oxygen.
Fight off infections.
Survive and reproduce.
Anatomy varies widely among species.
Anatomy often provides insights into physiology (biological function).
Page 5
Impact of Size and Shape
Size and shape influence environmental interactions.
Body plan is influenced by the organism's genome and evolutionary history.
Page 6
Evolution of Size and Shape (1 of 2)
Physical laws restrict possible animal forms.
Water properties limit shapes of fast-swimming animals.
Convergent evolution leads to similar adaptations in unrelated species.
Page 7
Examples of Convergent Evolution
Fast swimmers sharing adaptations:
Seal
Penguin
Tuna
Page 8
Evolution of Size and Shape (2 of 2)
Increasing size necessitates thicker skeletons for support.
Mobility becomes restricted as size increases affecting muscular needs.
Page 9
Exchange with the Environment (1 of 4)
Essential exchanges: Nutrients, waste, and gases across plasma membranes.
Exchange rate correlates with surface area; material requirements relate to volume.
Single-celled organisms often suffice with available surface area.
Page 10
Exchange with the Environment (2 of 4)
Multicellular organisms need access to sufficient aqueous environments.
Saclike body plans facilitate diffusion—two-cell-thick walls.
Page 11
Direct Exchange Examples
(a) Amoeba: Single-celled organism.
(b) Hydra: Two-layered cell structure enabling exchanges.
Page 12
Exchange with the Environment (3 of 4)
Flat animals like tapeworms have cells in direct contact with the environment.
Complex organisms require specialized structures for efficient exchanges.
Page 13
Internal Exchange Surfaces
Internal body processes involve:
Digestive system for nutrients.
Respiratory systems for gas exchange (e.g., through lungs).
Circulatory systems for transporting materials.
Excretory systems for waste elimination.
Page 14
Exchange with the Environment (4 of 4)
Interstitial fluid links exchange surfaces with body cells.
Complex body plans maintain stable internal environments amid external variability.
Page 15
Hierarchical Organization of Body Plans (1 of 2)
Animals are composed of:
Cells organized into tissues.
Tissues form organs.
Organs make up organ systems.
Some organs (e.g., pancreas) function in more than one system.
Page 16
Organ Systems in Mammals
Overview of major organ systems:
Digestive: Includes mouth, stomach, intestines, etc.
Circulatory: Heart, blood vessels, blood.
Respiratory: Lungs, trachea.
Immune and Lymphatic: Bone marrow, lymph nodes.
Excretory: Kidneys, bladder.
Endocrine: Hormone-secreting glands.
Reproductive: Ovaries/testes.
Nervous: Brain, spinal cord.
Integumentary: Skin and derivatives.
Skeletal: Skeleton, tendons, ligaments.
Muscular: Skeletal muscles.
Page 17
Hierarchical Organization of Body Plans (2 of 2)
Four main types of animal tissues:
Epithelial
Connective
Muscle
Nervous
Page 18
Exploring Epithelial Tissue (1 of 9)
Function: Covers body surfaces and lines organs.
Structure: Cells are closely packed.
Cell shapes include:
Cuboidal (dice-like)
Columnar (brick-like)
Squamous (floor-tile-like)
Page 21
Exploring Connective Tissue (2 of 9)
Function: Holds tissues and organs in place.
Structure: Sparse cells in an extracellular matrix.
Matrix composition: Fibers in a liquid, jellylike, or solid base.
Page 22
Cell Types in Connective Tissue
Includes:
Fibroblasts: Secrete fiber proteins.
Macrophages: Engulf foreign particles and debris.
Page 23
Types of Connective Tissue Fibers
Three fiber types:
Collagenous: Strength and flexibility.
Reticular: Joins connective tissues.
Elastic: Enables stretch and recovery.
Page 24
Major Types of Connective Tissue (5 of 9)
Includes:
Loose connective tissue: Binds epithelia to underlying tissues.
Fibrous connective tissue: Found in tendons and ligaments.
Bone: Mineralized for skeletal structure.
Page 25
More Types of Connective Tissue (6 of 9)
Includes:
Adipose tissue: Stores fat for insulation.
Blood: Composed of cells and plasma.
Cartilage: Provides support.
Page 27
Exploring Muscle Tissue (7 of 9)
Function: Responsible for all body movement.
Structure: Composed of actin and myosin filaments.
Page 28
Types of Muscle Tissue (8 of 9)
Classes include:
Skeletal Muscle: Voluntary movement.
Smooth Muscle: Involuntary body activity.
Cardiac Muscle: Contraction of the heart.
Page 30
Exploring Nervous Tissue (9 of 9)
Function: Processes and transmits information.
Contains:
Neurons: Transmit nerve impulses.
Glial Cells: Support neurons.
Page 31
Coordination and Control (1 of 4)
Major systems:
Endocrine System: Releases hormones for body-wide signaling.
Nervous System: Transmits information rapidly along routes.
Page 32
Features of Endocrine Signaling (2 of 4)
Hormones: Signaling molecules affecting various body locations.
Duration in bloodstream: Minutes to hours.
Page 33
Nervous System Signaling (3 of 4)
Nerve impulses travel fast to specific target cells.
Information depends on the pathway signal follows.
Page 34
Coordination in Endocrine and Nervous Systems (4 of 4)
Both systems work together to maintain a stable internal environment:
Endocrine adapts to gradual changes.
Nervous system directs immediate responses.
Page 36
Feedback Control in Homeostasis
Animals use regulation or conformity to manage internal environments amidst fluctuations.
Page 37
Regulating and Conforming
Regulator: Uses internal mechanisms to control changes despite external conditions.
Conformer: Allows internal conditions to vary with external changes.
Page 39
Homeostasis Overview
Definition: Maintenance of a steady internal state despite the external environment variations.
Examples in Humans: Body temperature, blood pH, glucose levels.
Page 40
Mechanisms of Homeostasis
Homeostatic control involves:
Sensors detect fluctuations above/below set points.
Control centers generate outputs for response.
Page 42
Feedback Control in Homeostasis
Negative Feedback: Damps stimuli, maintaining homeostasis.
Positive Feedback: Amplifies stimuli, driving processes to completion (e.g., childbirth).
Page 45
Alterations in Homeostasis (1 of 2)
Set points may shift with age or due to circadian rhythms affecting physiology.
Page 47
Alterations in Homeostasis (2 of 2)
Homeostasis can change through acclimatization, adapting to environmental alterations.
Page 49
Thermoregulation Overview
Definition: Maintaining an internal temperature within a normal range.
Page 50
Endothermy and Ectothermy (1 of 2)
Endotherms: Generate heat metabolically; examples include birds and mammals.
Ectotherms: Gather heat from outside sources; include reptiles, fishes, and most invertebrates.
Page 51
Endothermy and Ectothermy (2 of 2)
Endotherms maintain stable temperatures, while ectotherms consume less energy.
Page 53
Poikilotherms vs. Homeotherms
Poikilotherm: Body temperature varies with environment.
Homeotherm: Body temperature remains constant.
Page 54
Heat Exchange Processes (1 of 2)
Heat is exchanged via:
Radiation
Evaporation
Convection
Conduction
Page 56
Thermoregulation Adaptations (2 of 2)
Mammalian control involves:
Insulation, circulatory adjustments, evaporative cooling, behavioral changes, and metabolic heat production.
Page 57
Insulation
Essential for thermoregulation:
Components: Skin, feathers, fur, blubber.
Critical for marine mammals.
Page 58
Circulatory Adaptations (1 of 3)
Blood flow regulation influences cooling:
Vasodilation encourages heat loss.
Vasoconstriction reduces it.
Page 60
Countercurrent Heat Exchangers
Mechanism to retain warmth.
Found in marine mammals and some fish for reducing heat loss.
Page 62
Cooling by Evaporative Heat Loss
Method for cooling includes:
Sweating
Bathing
Panting (in some mammals).
Page 63
Behavioral Responses (1 of 2)
Ectotherms and endotherms adjust behaviors:
Seek shelter in cold, sun orientation in heat.
Page 65
Social Behavior in Thermoregulation (2 of 2)
Groups help retain heat (e.g., huddling in penguins).
Behavioral cooling in hot weather (e.g., honeybees).
Page 66
Metabolic Heat Production Adjustments (1 of 2)
Thermogenesis: Increasing metabolic heat to regulate temperature.
Nonshivering thermogenesis via hormone activation in mitochondria.
Page 69
Acclimatization in Thermoregulation
Birds and mammals adapt insulation in response to seasonal changes in temperature.
Page 70
Physiological Thermostats and Fever
Thermoregulation sensors are located in the hypothalamus.
Fever indicates an elevated biological thermostat range due to infections.
Page 72
Energy Requirements in Animals
Bioenergetics: Flow and transformation of energy and impacts on nutritional needs.
Page 73
Energy Allocation and Use (1 of 2)
Organism classification based on energy acquisition:
Autotrophs: Such as plants using light energy.
Heterotrophs: Such as animals using food energy.
Page 74
Energy Allocation and Use (2 of 2)
Food molecules used primarily for ATP production and then in biosynthesis (growth, repair, and storage).
Page 76
Quantifying Energy Use
Metabolic Rate: Total energy expenditure over time.
Measurement Methods:
Heat loss computation.
Oxygen consumption analysis.
Page 77
Minimum Metabolic Rate (1 of 2)
Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR): Of an endotherm, measured at rest and with a comfortable temperature range.
Page 78
Minimum Metabolic Rate (2 of 2)
Standard Metabolic Rate (SMR): Of a fasting ectotherm at rest at a specific temperature.
Page 79
Influences on Metabolic Rate
Factors affecting metabolism include:
Age, sex, size, activity level, environmental temperature, and nutrition status.
Page 80
Size and Metabolic Rate (1 of 2)
Metabolic rate correlates with body mass to the power of three-quarters.
Smaller animals have higher per gram metabolism than larger ones.
Page 81
Size and Metabolic Rate (2 of 2)
Trade-offs in body plans arising from energy cost variations at different sizes.
Page 82
Metabolic Rate and Body Size Relationship
Displays relationships between basal metabolic rates and body size across various mammals.
Page 83
Activity and Metabolic Rate (1 of 2)
Activity level significantly impacts metabolic rates.
An animal’s sustainability of max metabolic rate inversely relates to activity duration.
Page 84
Activity and Metabolic Rate (2 of 2)
Typical daily energy consumption ranges two to four times BMR or SMR depending on animal type and variation in behavior.
Page 85
Torpor and Energy Conservation (1 of 3)
Torpor: Decreased metabolism for energy conservation in adverse conditions.
Hibernation: Extended torpor for winter cold adaptation.
Page 87
Evoution Adaptations Similarities (3 of 3)
Shared adaptations between plants and animals indicate similar survival strategies.
Page 90
Feedback Control
Normal range maintenance for internal variables through detected stimuli and sensor responses.