Exam Prep Notes

Propaganda and Manipulation

• Technique that appeals to emotions to influence and convince people.

Common Techniques

• Bandwagon:

  • Joining the crowd to fit in.

  • Uses evidence and statistics.

• Testimonial:

  • Using trusted voices (e.g., celebrities).

  • Advertisements using celebrities to endorse products.

• Plain Folks:

  • Making the speaker or product seem relatable.

  • Appearing to be just like you.

• Glittering Generalities:

  • Using vague positive words and phrases that sound good but have no real meaning.

• Name-Calling:

  • Using negative words and labels to attack an opponent or idea.

  • Often without providing real evidence.

• Card Stacking:

  • Presenting only the positive aspects.

  • Ignoring or downplaying the negative aspects.

• Transfer (Borrowing Credibility):

  • Connecting a product or idea with something already liked or respected.

  • Examples: patriotism, family, or nature.

  • Example: Country’s president taking a picture with the flag.

• Compare and Contrast:

  • Uses evidence and statistics.

  • Highlighting similarities or differences between two things.

  • Often used to make one option seem superior.

• Thrift:

  • Suggesting a product or idea is economical and saves money.

  • Appeals to people's desire to be thrifty.

  • Downside: Items may be near expiry or damaged.

• Repetition:

  • Repeating a word, phrase, or message multiple times.

  • Aims to make it stick in people's minds.

  • Forms: logo, slogan, jingle, packaging (color, font, design).

• Snob Appeal:

  • Associating a product or idea with wealth and exclusivity.

  • Suggesting only the most discerning people use it.

• Faulty Cause and Effect (Post Hoc Fallacy):

  • Assuming one event caused another just because it followed the first.

  • Ignores other possible explanations.

  • Good result - credit, Bad result - blame

Logical Fallacies (False Reasoning)

• Common flaws in reasoning that weaken or invalidate an argument's logic.

• Defects that weaken arguments; errors in reasoning.

Common Logical Fallacies

• Ad Hominem (Name-Calling):

  • Replacing logical argumentation with attack language.

  • Example: "So what if he graduated from Harvard, he’s been to jail 3 times!"

• Straw Man:

  • Twisting someone's words; attacking a distorted version of the argument.

  • Opposing views described as lifeless, unreliable, and truthless

  • Example: Alex and Bella discuss work from home.

    • A: Work from home increases productivity and work-life balance.

    • B: Let everyone stay home all the time and never come into the office? That would destroy teamwork!

• Appeal to Ignorance (Argumentum ad Ignorantiam):

  • Arguing a conclusion is true because there is no evidence against it.

  • Example: "No one has ever proven that aliens don’t exist, so they must be real."

• False Dilemma (False Dichotomy):

  • Limiting options to two, despite more existing.

  • Uses either-or.

  • Example: "You're either with us, or you're against us."

• Slippery Slope:

  • Moving from a starting point through small steps to an improbable extreme.

  • (A, B, C -> Z)

  • Example: "If we allow students to redo one test, soon they'll expect to redo every assignment, and eventually no one will take deadlines seriously."

• Circular Argument (Petitio Principii):

  • Repeating what is already assumed beforehand without arriving at a conclusion.

  • Example: "I’m right because I said I’m right."

• Hasty Generalization:

  • Jumping to conclusions without enough information.

  • Assuming, stereotyping, general statements without sufficient evidence.

  • Example: "I met two people from that city who were rude, so everyone from there must be rude."

• Red Herring (Ignoratio Elenchi):

  • Making a distraction or diverting the topic in an argument.

  • Example: "Why worry about the company’s budget cuts when we haven’t even chosen a theme for the office party yet?"

• Post Hoc:

  • Faulty cause and effect, due to a lack of evidence.

  • Example: "I wore my lucky socks to the exam and got an A, so the socks must have helped me pass."

• Tu Quoque:

  • Appeal to hypocrisy because it points out hypocrisy in the opponent.

  • Example: "You can't tell me to stop smoking — you used to smoke all the time!"

• Fallacy of Sunk Cost:

  • Continuing an endeavor due to past investments, even if current costs outweigh benefits.

  • Example: "I’ve already spent so much money on this broken car, I can’t afford to sell it now. I need to keep fixing it."

• Equivocation (Ambiguity):

  • Using the same name for two different things, giving it a double meaning.

  • Example: "I asked if I should go left, you said right. So I went left because you said I was right."

• Appeal to Authority (Argumentum ad Verecundiam):

  • Misuse of authority.

    • Irrelevant Authority - Uses an authority, model or celebrity that isn't expert or doesn’t have a connection within the topic.

    • Poor Authority - Not trusted authority, lacks credibility or expertise

    • False Authority - Claiming something is true based on a non-expert's opinion.

  • Examples:

    • "My doctor says this diet is the best, so it must be true." (Irrelevant Authority)

    • "This famous actor says this toothpaste is better than others, so it must be true." (False Authority)

    • "My cousin says climate change isn’t real, and he watches a lot of documentaries." (Poor Authority)

• Appeal to Pity:

  • Using emotional sensitivity and compassion when these factors are not relevant.

• Bandwagon (Ad Populum):

  • Using popularity as evidence of truth.

  • Mob mentality.

• False Analogy:

  • Claiming comparison when differences outweigh similarities.

  • Example: "Students should be allowed to look at their textbooks during examinations. After all, surgeons have X-rays to guide them during an operation."

• Appeal to Threat/Force:

  • Forcing acceptance of a view based on threat of harm.

  • Example: "Agree that I'm right or else I will beat you up."

• Appeal to Tradition:

  • Basing the truth of a claim on the fact that it has always been believed.

  • Example: "Drinking boiling hot water (and never cold water) is always healthy because Chinese people have done it for thousands of years."

Methods of Paragraph Development

• Techniques to expand, elaborate, and organize ideas within a paragraph.

• Answers WH (who, where, what, when, why) + How questions.

Methods

• Exemplification:

  • Provides specific examples.

• Description:

  • Uses sensory details and descriptive language.

• Narration:

  • Tells a story or recounts events.

• Compare-Contrast (Comparison):

  • Highlights similarities and differences.

• Cause and Effect:

  • Explores reasons and consequences.

• Definition:

  • Defines a concept or key term.

• Process Analysis (Procedural):

  • Breaks down a process into steps.

• Classification:

  • Groups similar items into categories.

• Argumentation:

  • Presents a claim with evidence to persuade.

• Evaluation:

  • Assesses strengths, weaknesses, merits, or limits.

Literature: "Madman on the Roof" & "Kabuliwala"

"The Madman on the Roof" by Kan Kikuchi

• Characters:

  • The Madman: Batsushima Yoshitaro, 24 years old

  • Younger brother: Suejiro, 17 years old

  • Father: Gisuke

  • Mother: Oyoshi

  • Neighbor: Tosaku

  • Servant: Kichiji, 20 years old

  • Hag (Holy woman): 50 years old

• Setting:

  • Time: Meiji period (30’s)

  • Place: Island off the coast of Sanuki in the Inland Sea

• Conflict:

  • Yoshitaro’s madness and his family’s struggle to deal with it.

• Solution:

  • Family accepts Yoshitaro’s condition, leaving him on the roof as the sun sets.

• Themes:

  • Madness

  • Familial love

  • Societal shame/expectation

  • Superstition

  • Acceptance

  • Situational Irony: The younger brother's wisdom and compassion.

"Kabuliwala" by Rabindranath Tagore

• Characters:

  • Rahamat / Kabuliwala (Afghan Trader)

  • Mini

  • Mini’s father (Narrator)

  • Mini’s mother

  • Policeman (Minor character)

  • Neighbor (Minor character)

• Setting:

  • Kolkata, India in the late 19th century.

  • Locations: Mini’s house, the street, and the jail.

• Conflict:

  • Man vs. Society: Kabuliwala faces prejudice as a foreigner.

  • Man vs. Self: Mini’s father realizes the Kabuliwala’s emotions as a father.

• Solution:

  • Kabuliwala visits Mini after release, but she doesn't remember him.

  • Mini’s father empathizes and gives him money to reunite with his child.

• Themes:

  • Parental love and Separation

  • Compassion and Understanding

  • Cultural Differences and Human Connection

  • The universal pain of separation

Comparison of the Two Stories