Civil Rights Movements of the 1970s: Women, Latinos, and Native Americans
Expansion of the Civil Rights Movement into the 1970s
The civil rights movement was instrumental in ending legal segregation and securing two monumental pieces of federal legislation: the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965.
As the movement progressed into the 1970s, it evolved and expanded to include other groups seeking the rights and protections promised to all Americans by the Constitution.
Key groups that increasingly took action during this period included women, Latinos, and Native Americans.
The Fight for Women’s Rights and Social Reforms
The push by feminists for greater rights continued to gather significant strength as the 1960s transitioned into the 1970s.
Feminists achieved several tangible social and legal goals during this era:
Opened shelters specifically for battered women.
Successfully fought for legal protection from employment discrimination for pregnant women.
Advocated for the reform of rape laws.
Secured the criminalization of domestic violence.
Public demonstrations were a key tactic; for instance, approximately supporters of women’s rights marched through Washington, D.C., in August 1977.
Reproductive Rights and Roe v. Wade
A central pillar of the women's rights movement was the right to make reproductive choices.
In 1973, the U.S. Supreme Court issued a landmark decision in the case of Roe v. Wade.
The Court ruled that state laws which unduly restricted abortion violated a woman’s constitutional right to privacy.
This ruling became a source of intense controversy, leading to decades of heated public discussion and ongoing legal challenges from those who consider abortion to be morally wrong.
Women’s Engagement in Politics and Title IX
Advances in women’s rights were frequently the result of increased engagement in the political sphere.
Patsy Mink, the first Asian American woman elected to Congress, coauthored the Higher Education Act.
Title IX of the Higher Education Act prohibits sex discrimination in education.
A significant effect of Title IX was the major expansion of women’s sports programs in schools.
The National Women’s Political Caucus (NWPC) was formed in 1971 to provide a base of support for women in politics.
Founding members included leading feminists Bella Abzug, Gloria Steinem, and Shirley Chisholm.
The organization's purpose was to encourage women’s participation in politics by growing their membership in political parties, electing women to office, and raising money for campaigns.
The Equal Rights Amendment (ERA)
A primary goal of the National Organization for Women (NOW) was the passage of the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA).
The ERA was a proposed amendment to the U.S. Constitution that would guarantee equal legal rights for all U.S. citizens regardless of gender.
Congress approved the amendment in March 1972 and sent it to the states for ratification.
Ratification Requirements and Timeline:
The amendment required ratification by states to become part of the Constitution.
The initial deadline for ratification was set for 1979.
Supporters included prominent figures such as Betty Ford, wife of President Gerald Ford.
Ratification Progress:
In 1972, states ratified the amendment.
In 1973, additional states ratified it.
Over the subsequent two years, only more states gave approval.
By 1979, the amendment was still votes short of the required .
Extension and Failure:
Congress granted a three-year extension to the 1979 deadline.
Despite this reprieve, the ERA faced well-organized opposition from Christian and other socially conservative grassroots organizations and ultimately never passed.
Latino Civil Rights and the Chicano Movement
Latino rights movements gained strength in parallel with the women's movement during the 1960s and 1970s.
César Chávez and Dolores Huerta were pivotal in organizing Mexican American farmworkers to secure better pay and improved working conditions.
The Chicano movement focused on gaining political power and cultural respect for Mexican Americans.
Demographic shifts also played a role; for example, Miami’s Hispanic population soared in the mid-20th century due to large-scale immigration from Latin America.
Legislation and Political Victories for Latinos
Equal Educational Opportunities Act (EEOA) of 1974:
Congress passed this act to address the history of Spanish-speaking students being separated from other students and receiving inferior educations.
The EEOA prohibited segregation based on race, color, or national origin.
It established that non-English-speaking students have a right to instruction in a language they understand, requiring schools to offer bilingual education.
Local Victories in Miami, Florida:
In 1973, a referendum made the county in which Miami is located officially bilingual, requiring all county services to be provided in both Spanish and English.
In 1973, voters elected Maurice Ferré, a Puerto Rican immigrant, as mayor, making him the first Hispanic mayor of a major U.S. city.
Affirmative Action and Judicial Interpretations
The Civil Rights Act of 1964 established the policy of affirmative action to break down barriers for Latinos and other ethnic/racial minorities.
Affirmative action sought to improve education and employment opportunities for groups that had long suffered from discrimination.
A common application was giving special consideration to minority group members during college admissions or job applications.
Griggs v. Duke Power (1971):
The Supreme Court ruled that employers could not use job requirements (like tests) that functionally exclude members of a certain race if those requirements have no relation to measuring job performance.
This decision targeted "disparate impact," where tests were engineered to exclude minority groups.
It opened up government employment by limiting the use of Civil Service exams at city and state levels.
The ruling also influenced public school policies regarding zoning, school closures, and tracking, requiring them to be free of disparate impact.
Legal Challenges to Affirmative Action
By the late 1970s, affirmative action faced backlash from opponents who argued it created "reverse discrimination" against qualified white applicants.
Regents of the University of California v. Bakke:
Allan Bakke, a white man, sued after being rejected from a medical school that used a quota system to reserve seats for minority candidates.
The Supreme Court ruled that schools could consider race as part of admissions criteria to promote diversity.
However, the Court ruled that schools could not use specific racial quotas.
Native American Activism and Socioeconomic Conditions
The American Indian Movement (AIM) was formed in Minneapolis, Minnesota, in 1968 by 200 activists frustrated by poverty and discrimination.
Socioeconomic realities for Native Americans in 1970 included:
An average life expectancy of years (compared to the national average of ).
A suicide rate twice that of the general population.
The highest infant mortality rate in the country.
Unemployment reaching on reservations (where half of all Native Americans lived).
of urban-dwelling Native Americans living below the poverty line.
Major Protests: Alcatraz and the Trail of Broken Treaties
Occupation of Alcatraz Island:
Began November 20, 1969, and lasted months until June 11, 1971.
Protesters called attention to historical mistreatment and planned to build an American Indian cultural center, history museum, ecology center, and spiritual sanctuary.
Occupancy numbers grew to approximately people, supported by mainland boat deliveries and celebrity visits.
Trail of Broken Treaties (1972):
A cross-country protest that led to the occupation of the Bureau of Indian Affairs offices in Washington, D.C.
Demands included: improved housing, education, and economy; drafting of new treaties; return of Indian lands; and protection of native religions/cultures.
The Siege at Wounded Knee
In February 1973, AIM staged a dramatic occupation of Wounded Knee, South Dakota, on the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation.
The location was chosen for its historical significance as the site of the U.S. Army’s 1890 massacre of the Lakota tribe.
The occupation followed an unsuccessful attempt by Oglala members to impeach a tribal president accused of corruption.
The resulting siege lasted days, involving U.S. marshals, FBI agents, and frequent gunfire.
Casualties included one wounded U.S. marshal, one wounded FBI agent, and two Native Americans killed.
Outcome and Concessions by the Nixon Administration:
While many demands were not met, the government increased funding for Indian health care, education, legal services, housing, and economic development.
The Bureau of Indian Affairs committed to hiring more Indian employees.