Ancient Mediterranean Summary

Ancient Mediterranean

We are going to start a unit focusing on the civilizations surrounding the Mediterranean Sea.

Mesopotamia

One of the first areas populated by concentrated human populations is Mesopotamia.

Fertile Crescent
  • Around 3,500 BC (5,500 years ago), city-states began in modern-day Iran and Iraq.
  • This area is known as the Fertile Crescent due to its crescent shape, abundant water, sun, and natural resources.
  • Proximity to both salt and fresh water (Tigris and Euphrates rivers) made the soil rich and perfect for early agriculture.
  • The coastline has receded since then.
Humankind's Firsts

Mesopotamia is credited with:

  • First known writing.
  • First known cities and urbanization.
  • Organized religion.
  • Organized laws and government.
  • Use of the wheel.
  • Agriculture.
Civilizations

Four main civilizations occupied this area:

  • Sumer
  • Babylon
  • Assyria
  • Persia

People fought over resource-rich areas, leading to successive civilizations building on top of one another.
Ancient Mesopotamia is known for vast empires constantly changing names, borders, and hands.

Transitions from Global Prehistory

Focus is shifting towards humans, human activities, and art.

  • City-states are emerging.
  • Art is moving beyond being created "for art's sake."
  • Division of labor is occurring with urbanization.

Not everyone needs to be a farmer; some specialize in art or administrative roles.

Social Classes
  • Division of social classes is developing.
  • Upper classes capitalize on talented individuals to create images and narratives that secure their power.
  • Lots of images of rulers, kings, and deities are being created.

Sumer

The first of these civilizations.

Irrigation Systems
  • Sumer is known for creating complex irrigation systems.
  • Channels were created to divert water from the Euphrates River for flooding fields.
  • Specialization of labor existed; not everyone needed to focus on food production.
City-States and Religion
  • Several independent city-states existed within Sumer, each under the protection of one or more deities.
  • Organized polytheistic religion was present.
  • The ruling class was tasked with carrying out the gods' divine wills (theocracy).
Significant Sites

Two archaeologically significant sites mentioned in the AP curriculum:

  • Er
  • Uruk

River systems provided the backbone of this important area.

Architecture
  • Sumerians built gigantic temple complexes from mud brick because of the lack of naturally occurring stone in the region.
  • Mud brick is susceptible to crumbling when exposed to water.
  • Trade networks brought in materials like stone, semi-precious minerals (lapis lazuli from Afghanistan), and wood (from Lebanon).
Cuneiform

The Sumerians are credited with creating the first known writing system, called cuneiform.

  • Most surviving examples are bookkeeping records.
  • Some stories, fables, and narratives have been passed down through cuneiform.
Cylinder Seals
  • Cylinder seals were made to authenticate trade agreements or other items.
  • Commonly found in burial sites.
  • Evidence suggests Sumerians enjoyed recreation and entertainment.
Epic of Gilgamesh
  • Many stories exist; the most famous is the Epic of Gilgamesh.
  • Musical instruments have been found in burial sites (e.g., harps).

White Temple and Ziggurat

  • The ziggurat is the mud brick platform; the temple is at the top.
  • What remains today are the foundations of the temple and the worn-away remains of the ziggurat.
  • The city of Uruk, an architecturally significant site in ancient Sumer, was said to have been protected by the sky god Anu (the Sumerian equivalent of Zeus).
  • The structure, about 40 feet tall at its peak, was built in the center of the city so that Anu could descend and communicate with royalty and clergy in the temple.
  • Theocratic government: a few people are permitted to enter the temple and commune with the gods.
  • The temple was not for congregational worship (unlike churches or mosques); it was a small, private area for members of the ruling class.
Construction and Features
  • The temple was once coated with bitumen (waterproofing, tar-like cement), making it gleaming white.
  • The inner temple contained a cella, or inner area, with several private rooms where members of the ruling class would wait for the gods to manifest and tell them what to do.
  • The ziggurat had tapered sides to encourage water to slide off during rain, preventing collapse.
  • A terrace outside the ziggurat was large enough for outdoor rituals.

Votive Offerings

  • Votive offerings made of gypsum were found in archaeologically significant areas.
  • Stone was imported, making these offerings expensive.
  • Hundreds of these statues have been found in temples, typically buried beneath the floors.
  • Most are between one and two feet high; some are around 30 inches high.
  • They were commissioned by donors to be placed in temples to pray for them in their absence, acting as proxies since the average person couldn't enter the temple.
Inscriptions and Features
  • Inscribed bases in cuneiform stated "It offers prayers" or had the name of the patron who commissioned the sculpture.
  • Evidence suggests statues were designed in the likenesses of their patrons.
  • Each statuette has hands clasped in a praying position and often holds a beaker for libation (ritual hand washing or pouring of water).
  • Negative space is carved out between the legs and sometimes the arms.
  • Men have long, rippling beards and knee-length skirts.
  • Women have robes that cover one shoulder.
Symbolism
  • Extremely large eyes symbolize eternal wakefulness, indicating the statue is always present and devoted to prayer.

Standard of Ur

  • Found in a royal cemetery (royal tombs) at Ur.
  • Distinct social classes existed; important people were buried with lavish items.
  • The super-rich and powerful were sometimes buried with sacrificed servants to assist them in the afterlife.
  • It may have been a standard (image on a pole carried during military processions) or a musical instrument.
  • Made from expensive imported materials, including red limestone, shell, and lapis lazuli, which shows evidence of extensive trade networks.
  • The standard is about 20 inches long and displays a narrative in registers (narrative bands).
    The narrative reads from bottom to top.
War Side
  • Shows the Sumerian king (tallest and most central figure) dismounting from his chariot to inspect prisoners.
  • Includes scenes of conquest, with chariots running over prisoners, who are then stripped and presented to the king.
Peace Side
  • Depicts preparations for a feast, with items (possibly war booty) being brought in a procession to the palace and prepared for entertainment.
  • The king is the tallest figure, sitting, and there is entertainment with a harp player.
  • Figures and animals are in twisted perspective.
Continuous Narrative
  • Bottom register shows mules or horses increasing their pace, suggesting motion.
  • The distance between their legs (gates) increases, indicating a progression from walking to galloping.
  • This is an example of a continuous narrative, similar to a comic strip without divisions, showing a progression of events.
  • You are seeing both feet when the figures are seated. You're also seeing the face in a profile view, everything except for the eyes, which are shown from the frontal view.

Akkadian Statue

  • Although the Akkadians aren't covered, this statue showed the use of metal casting.
  • The statue, likely of an Akkadian ruler, was intentionally damaged.
  • The eyes were gouged out, and the beard was snapped off.
Iconoclasm
  • This destruction is an example of iconoclasm, the deliberate destruction of artwork or images, especially those of rulers or deities.
  • Often occurs when a ruler is overthrown.

Babylonia

  • The Babylonian empire didn't last long in its first iteration; it dissolved after King Hammurabi's death.
  • There was a brief resurgence about a thousand years later.
  • Many traditions carried over from the Sumerians (architecture, religious traditions).
King Hammurabi
  • Best known for creating a set of state-ordained laws based on the principle of "eye for an eye."
  • Babylon was likely the largest city in the world at the time, with a little under a quarter million people.
  • The city was rebuilt about a thousand years after its initial conception.
Ishtar Gates
  • The Ishtar Gates are particularly famous; there's a reconstruction in Germany and a recreation at RISD.
  • A massive ziggurat, about 250 feet tall, was said to be the origin of the biblical narrative of Babel.
  • The Gates of Ishtar again showed twisted perspective.

Stele of Hammurabi

  • Stele refers to a fancy rock.
  • Made of basalt (volcanic stone).
  • Originally set up in Babylon but taken to Susa by an Elamite king.
  • The text is in Akkadian, with 51 columns and about 300 laws (Hammurabi's law code).
Imagery
  • Foreshortening is subtly used in the image.
  • Hammurabi is being presented with a measuring rod and coiled rope by the god Shamash.
  • Shamash wears a crown with four rows of horns and has a longer, fuller beard than Hammurabi, indicating his higher status.
  • Shamash is just a little bit taller than Hammurabi.
  • Hammurabi makes a speaking gesture (hand close to the mouth).
Theocracy
  • The gods tell important mortals what to do; those mortals then tell everyone else.
  • Shamash is giving Hammurabi the tools to construct and maintain social order.

Assyria

  • The Assyrians were the most militant of the four civilizations.
  • Assyrian society revolved around the military, and they used aggressive tactics.
  • Victims were often terrorized into submission.
  • A common tactic was to destroy a small town and kill everyone to force surrounding towns to surrender.
Wealth and Depictions of Kings
  • Conquests led to amassed wealth, which was used to construct palaces and art.
  • Kings often depicted themselves as masculine, stoic figures.
  • King Ashurbanipal had himself depicted hunting lions, with stoic faces but with emotions depicted on the lions.
  • This was a way for Assyrian kings to affirm their masculinity by hunting wild animals in controlled environments.

Lamassu

  • Winged bull with a man's head.
  • Built in the citadel of Sargon the Second, almost 14 feet tall, and hauled using ropes and sleds.
  • Narrative relief sculptures depict this event.
Features
  • Chimera statues with five legs.
  • From the front, both legs are visible, while from the side, only four legs are seen.
  • This was a way to show the creature from multiple angles while maintaining structural integrity.
Purpose
  • Intended to support the gate and protect the seven-walled citadel.
  • Assyrians were paranoid and sought to protect their hard work.
Design and Symbolism
  • Repetition of forms (feathers, hair) conveys harmony and stability.
  • The statues, 14 feet tall, would have been imposing.
  • Intended to be apotropaic, warding off evil or bad luck.

Persia (Achaemenid Empire)

  • The Achaemenid Empire absorbed Babylon and became massive.
  • It was the largest empire at the time.
  • Much of what we know about Persia comes from the Greeks.
Tolerance and Governance
  • The Persian Empire was multi-ethnic and tolerant of conquered people's faiths, languages, and political structures.
  • They didn't force assimilation but required annual tributes as a sign of loyalty and insurance.
  • The audience hall of Darius and Xerxes showed members of these nations offering tributes.
Fall of the Empire
  • The Persian Empire was toppled by Alexander the Great, who buried the last Persian king in a massive tomb to legitimize his control.
  • Persians were known for lavish parties and used solid gold serving ware.

Audience Hall (Apadana) of Darius and Xerxes

  • Added to over successive generations by different Persian kings.
  • Located on a plateau overlooking a plain.
  • Intended to awe and impress; used for festivals and receptions, with a capacity of around 10,000 people.
Construction and Materials
  • Originally 72 columns, each almost 65 feet tall, but only 14 remain standing today.
  • Stone was sourced from elsewhere, attesting to the empire's wealth.
  • Each column had a capital with animal motifs (bulls, eagles, griffins).
  • The roof was made of timber imported from Lebanon and sealed with plaster.
Relief Sculptures
  • Relief sculptures on the terrace and stairs depicted Persian nobles, dignitaries, guards, and members of 23 subject nations bearing tributes.
  • Each member of the tribute nations was dressed and styled in a way to signify their origin.
Symbolism and Destruction
  • Conveyed that this was a cosmopolitan but organized and structured empire to show harmony, stability, and coexistence.
  • Alexander the Great destroyed the audience hall and the rest of the complex around 330 BCE to signify the fall of the empire.