Philosophy and Ethics (EdExcel)
Part 1: Introduction to Philosophy and Ethics
What is Philosophy?
Definition: Philosophy comes from the Greek words "philo" (love) and "sophia" (wisdom), meaning "love of wisdom." It is the systematic study of fundamental questions about existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language.
Key Branches of Philosophy:
Metaphysics: Study of reality and existence. Questions about what is real, the nature of being, time, space, and causality. Includes topics like:
Cosmology: The origin and nature of the universe.
Ontology: The study of being and existence.
Philosophy of Mind: The nature of consciousness, mind, and the relationship between mind and body.
Epistemology: Study of knowledge. Questions about what knowledge is, how we acquire knowledge, justification of beliefs, and the limits of knowledge. Includes topics like:
Sources of Knowledge: Empiricism (experience), Rationalism (reason), Intuition, Revelation.
Truth and Justification: What makes a belief true and how can we justify our beliefs?
Ethics (Moral Philosophy): Study of morality and values. Questions about right and wrong conduct, good and bad character, moral principles, and how we should live.
Logic: Study of reasoning and argumentation. How to construct valid arguments and identify fallacies.
Aesthetics: Study of beauty and art. What is beauty? What is the nature of art?
What is Ethics? (Moral Philosophy)
Definition: Ethics is a branch of philosophy that deals with moral principles, values, and duties. It seeks to understand what is right and wrong, good and bad, and how we should live and act.
Key Areas of Ethics:
Normative Ethics: Concerned with establishing moral standards of conduct. Asks questions like: "What should we do?" or "What is morally right?" Includes various ethical theories (see Part 3 below).
Meta-ethics: Concerned with the nature of morality itself. Asks questions like: "What is the meaning of moral terms like 'good' and 'right'?" "Are moral values objective or subjective?"
Applied Ethics: Applies ethical theories to specific practical issues and moral dilemmas in areas like medicine, business, environment, technology, etc.
Why Study Philosophy and Ethics in Religious Studies?
Understanding Religious Beliefs: Philosophy helps to analyze and understand the philosophical underpinnings of religious beliefs (e.g., arguments for God's existence, concepts of the soul, afterlife).
Examining Moral Teachings: Ethics is crucial for understanding and evaluating the moral teachings of different religions and their ethical frameworks.
Critical Thinking: Philosophy and ethics encourage critical thinking, logical reasoning, and the ability to analyze complex issues from different perspectives.
Personal Reflection: Studying these topics encourages self-reflection on personal values, beliefs, and how to live a meaningful and ethical life.
Contemporary Issues: Religious Studies often engages with contemporary ethical issues (e.g., medical ethics, environmental ethics, social justice), where philosophical and ethical frameworks are essential for analysis and discussion.
Part 2: Key Philosophical Concepts and Arguments (Relevant to Religious Studies)
Arguments for the Existence of God:
Cosmological Argument: Argument from the existence of the universe to the existence of a First Cause or Uncaused Cause, often identified with God.
First Cause Argument: Everything that exists has a cause. The chain of causes cannot be infinite, so there must be a First Cause that is itself uncaused – God. (e.g., Aquinas's First Way)
Argument from Contingency: Everything in the universe is contingent (dependent on something else for its existence). There must be a Necessary Being that is not contingent and upon which all contingent things depend – God. (e.g., Aquinas's Third Way)
Kalam Cosmological Argument: Whatever begins to exist has a cause. The universe began to exist. Therefore, the universe has a cause – God. (e.g., William Lane Craig)
Strengths: Appeals to common sense observation of causality; attempts to explain the origin of the universe.
Weaknesses: Fallacy of composition (what is true of parts is not necessarily true of the whole); question of why the First Cause is God; possibility of infinite regress; scientific explanations (Big Bang).
Teleological Argument (Argument from Design): Argument from the apparent design, order, and purpose in the universe to the existence of an intelligent Designer – God.
Analogy Arguments: Universe is like a watch; a watch has a watchmaker, so the universe must have a universe-maker (God). (e.g., Paley's Watchmaker Argument)
Argument from Fine-Tuning: The constants of physics are finely tuned for life to exist. This fine-tuning is too improbable to be by chance and suggests a Designer.
Strengths: Appeals to the apparent order and complexity of the universe; intuitive sense of design.
Weaknesses: Analogy arguments are weak; evolution can explain complexity without a designer; problem of natural evil (design flaws); anthropic principle (we observe fine-tuning because we exist to observe it).
Ontological Argument: Argument for God's existence based on the very concept or definition of God as the "greatest conceivable being" or "perfect being."
Anselm's Ontological Argument: God is "that than which nothing greater can be conceived." Existence in reality is greater than existence in the mind alone. Therefore, God must exist in reality.
Descartes' Ontological Argument: Existence is a perfection. God is a perfect being. Therefore, God must exist.
Strengths: Logical and conceptual argument; attempts to prove God's existence a priori (without empirical evidence).
Weaknesses: "Existence is not a predicate" (Kant's objection); argument relies on a specific definition of God; circular reasoning; doesn't convince non-believers.
Moral Argument: Argument from the existence of objective morality or moral laws to the existence of a moral Lawgiver – God.
Moral Law Argument: Objective moral laws exist (e.g., it is objectively wrong to torture babies for fun). Objective laws require a Lawgiver – God.
Argument from Conscience: Human conscience points to a moral standard beyond ourselves, suggesting a divine source of morality.
Strengths: Appeals to our moral intuitions and sense of right and wrong; attempts to ground morality in something objective.
Weaknesses: Is morality truly objective? Can morality be explained without God (e.g., evolutionary or social explanations)? Does the existence of morality necessarily imply a divine Lawgiver?
Problem of Evil: Argument against the existence of a benevolent and omnipotent (all-powerful) God based on the existence of evil and suffering in the world.
Logical Problem of Evil: Logical inconsistency between the existence of an omnipotent, omnibenevolent, and omniscient God and the existence of evil. If God is all-powerful, God can prevent evil. If God is all-good, God would want to prevent evil. Evil exists. Therefore, an all-powerful and all-good God does not exist (or at least one of these attributes must be limited).
Evidential Problem of Evil: The amount and kinds of evil in the world (especially gratuitous evil – pointless suffering) make it improbable that a benevolent and omnipotent God exists.
Moral Evil: Suffering caused by human actions (e.g., war, cruelty, injustice).
Natural Evil: Suffering caused by natural events (e.g., earthquakes, diseases, floods).
Theodicies (Attempts to Reconcile God and Evil):
Free Will Defense: Evil is the result of human free will; God gave humans free will, and they misuse it to cause evil. God cannot remove free will without removing a great good.
Response: Does free will justify all evil, especially natural evil? Could God not have created free beings who always choose good?
Soul-Making Theodicy (Irenaean Theodicy): Evil and suffering are necessary for moral and spiritual development ("soul-making"). God allows evil to exist to help humans grow and become better people.
Response: Is the amount and intensity of suffering in the world necessary for soul-making? Is it morally justifiable for God to use evil as a tool for soul-making?
Augustinian Theodicy (Privation Theory of Evil): Evil is not a positive substance but a "privation" or lack of good. Evil is a consequence of human sin (Fall of Man). God is not responsible for creating evil; humans are.
Response: Does "privation" adequately explain the reality of evil? Is it fair to blame all evil on original sin? Is God responsible for creating a world where humans would inevitably fall?
Process Theodicy: God is not omnipotent in the traditional sense, but is a persuasive force working to minimize evil. God is also affected by suffering in the world.
Response: Challenges traditional attributes of God (omnipotence); may not be satisfying to those who want a God who can completely eliminate evil.
Miracles: Events that are considered to be supernatural interventions by God in the natural world, often seen as evidence for God's existence or divine action.
Definitions of Miracles:
Violation of Natural Law (Hume): Miracles are violations of the laws of nature by a divine being. Hume argued against the credibility of miracles based on lack of sufficient evidence and the uniformity of natural law.
Extraordinary Coincidences (Holland): Miracles are extraordinary and beneficial coincidences interpreted in a religious way. Emphasis on the subjective interpretation and meaning of events.
Signs and Wonders (Biblical Perspective): Miracles are seen as signs of God's power and wonders that inspire faith.
Types of Miracles:
Miracles of Nature: Events that defy natural laws (e.g., raising the dead, walking on water, miraculous healings).
Miracles of History: Unusual and beneficial historical events interpreted as divine intervention (e.g., miraculous deliverance).
Miracles of Personal Experience: Subjective experiences interpreted as miraculous (e.g., answered prayers, conversions).
Arguments for Miracles: Eyewitness testimony (religious texts, personal accounts), coherence with religious worldview, personal experience.
Arguments Against Miracles (Skepticism): Lack of reliable evidence, possibility of natural explanations (coincidence, misinterpretation, fraud), philosophical objections (Hume's argument against credibility), problem of conflicting miracle claims from different religions.
Soul, Death, and Afterlife: Philosophical and religious concepts related to the nature of consciousness, personal identity, death, and what (if anything) happens after death.
Soul: Non-physical, spiritual part of a person, often considered immortal and the seat of consciousness, personality, and identity.
Substance Dualism (e.g., Plato, Descartes): Mind (soul) and body are distinct substances. Soul is immaterial, immortal, and can exist independently of the body. Body is material and mortal.
Substance Monism (Materialism/Physicalism): Only physical substance exists. Mind and consciousness are products of brain activity and physical processes. No soul as a separate substance.
Property Dualism (e.g., emergentism): There is only one kind of substance (physical), but mental properties are distinct and emergent from physical properties. Consciousness is a product of complex brain states, but not reducible to purely physical terms.
Arguments for the Soul: Religious teachings, near-death experiences, consciousness and subjective experience, intuition, moral and rational capacities.
Arguments Against the Soul (Materialist View): Lack of empirical evidence, dependence of mind on brain, problem of interaction between immaterial soul and material body, parsimony (Occam's Razor – simpler explanations are preferable).
Death: Biological end of life, cessation of bodily functions. Philosophical questions about the nature of death, fear of death, and meaning of life in light of mortality.
Afterlife: Beliefs about what happens after death. Common religious concepts include:
Heaven and Hell: Traditional Christian, Islamic, and some Jewish beliefs about afterlife realms of reward and punishment based on moral conduct in life.
Reincarnation (Rebirth): Hindu, Buddhist, Sikh, and Jain belief in cyclical rebirth of the soul into new lives based on karma (actions and their consequences).
Purgatory (Catholicism): Intermediate state of purification after death for those who die in God's grace but are not yet fully purified for heaven.
Soul Sleep: Some Christian denominations believe in a state of unconsciousness after death until resurrection.
No Afterlife (Materialist View): Death is the end of personal existence. Consciousness ceases with brain death.
Arguments for Afterlife: Religious faith, near-death experiences, desire for justice, hope for immortality, philosophical arguments for the soul.
Arguments Against Afterlife (Skepticism/Materialism): Lack of empirical evidence, dependence of consciousness on brain, problem of personal identity after death (if body and brain are destroyed), finality of death observed in biology.
Part 3: Key Ethical Theories (Normative Ethics)
Deontology (Duty-Based Ethics): Moral actions are determined by duties and rules, not consequences. Emphasis on moral obligations, rights, and principles.
Kantian Ethics (Immanuel Kant): Central principle: Categorical Imperative.
First Formulation (Universal Law Formulation): Act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law. (Act in a way that you could rationally will everyone to act in similar circumstances).
Second Formulation (Humanity Formulation): Act in such a way that you treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other, never merely as a means to an end, but always at the same time as an end. (Treat people as ends in themselves, with respect and dignity, not just as tools to achieve your goals).
Good Will: Moral worth comes from acting out of duty, motivated by good will (desire to do what is right because it is right), not from inclinations or consequences.
Duties: Perfect duties (absolute, e.g., do not lie, do not break promises) and imperfect duties (obligations to promote certain ends, e.g., develop talents, help others in need).
Strengths: Emphasis on moral principles and duties, universalizability, respect for persons, objective morality.
Weaknesses: Rigidity, potential conflicts of duties, difficulty in resolving moral dilemmas, neglecting consequences, culturally relative duties?, is it always wrong to treat someone as means to an end?
Divine Command Theory: Morality is based on God's commands. What is right is what God commands; what is wrong is what God forbids. Moral duties are derived from divine commands.
Source of Morality: God's will is the ultimate source of moral authority.
Religious Texts and Revelation: Moral commands are found in religious scriptures and divine revelations.
Strengths: Clear source of moral authority for believers, aligns morality with religious faith, objective morality (if God is objective).
Weaknesses: Euthyphro Dilemma (Is something good because God commands it, or does God command it because it is good?), problem of interpreting divine commands, problem of conflicting religious commands, is morality arbitrary if based solely on divine will? Does it undermine autonomy and reason in ethics?
Consequentialism (Teleological Ethics): Moral actions are judged by their consequences. The right action is the one that produces the best overall consequences. Focus on outcomes and results.
Utilitarianism: Form of consequentialism that aims to maximize overall happiness or "utility." The greatest good for the greatest number.
Jeremy Bentham's Utilitarianism (Act Utilitarianism): Focus on maximizing pleasure and minimizing pain. Principle of Utility: Actions are right if they promote happiness, wrong if they produce unhappiness. Hedonistic calculus – measure pleasure and pain based on intensity, duration, certainty, etc. Each act judged individually by its consequences.
John Stuart Mill's Utilitarianism (Rule Utilitarianism): Distinguishes between higher and lower pleasures (intellectual vs. sensual). Emphasis on rules that generally maximize happiness over time. Follow moral rules that tend to produce the greatest good for the greatest number in the long run. Rules should be generally followed, even if in a particular instance breaking the rule might produce slightly better consequences.
Strengths: Focus on promoting happiness and well-being, practical and flexible, considers consequences, aims for overall good.
Weaknesses: Difficulty in predicting and measuring consequences, potential to justify harm to individuals or minorities for the sake of the majority, "tyranny of the majority," problem of impartiality (whose happiness counts?), demandingness, justice concerns, moral luck.
Virtue Ethics: Focus on character and virtues rather than rules or consequences. Moral actions flow from virtuous character. Asks: "What kind of person should I be?" rather than "What should I do?"
Aristotelian Virtue Ethics: Central concept: Eudaimonia (flourishing, living well, human fulfillment). Goal of ethics is to achieve Eudaimonia.
Virtues: Excellent character traits that enable a person to live well and flourish (e.g., courage, honesty, generosity, justice, wisdom, temperance). Virtues are developed through practice and habit.
Golden Mean: Virtue is a mean between two extremes (vices of excess and deficiency). E.g., Courage is the mean between cowardice (deficiency) and recklessness (excess).
Practical Wisdom (Phronesis): Ability to discern the right course of action in particular situations, using reason and experience.
Developing Virtues: Through moral education, habituation, role models, and practical experience.
Strengths: Emphasis on character development, holistic approach to ethics, flexibility and context-sensitivity, focus on human flourishing, acknowledges the role of emotions and habits in morality.
Weaknesses: Vagueness of virtues, difficulty in applying to specific moral dilemmas, cultural relativism of virtues?, lack of clear action-guidance, can virtues conflict?
Situation Ethics (Joseph Fletcher): Christian ethical theory that emphasizes love (agape) as the only absolute moral principle. Moral decisions should be made based on the most loving thing to do in each unique situation.
Love (Agape) as Supreme Norm: "Love is the only norm" – all other rules and principles are subordinate to love. Love is unconditional, selfless love (agape – Greek term for Christian love).
Four Working Principles: Pragmatism, Relativism, Positivism, Personalism.
Six Fundamental Principles: Love is the only good, love is the ruling norm of Christian ethics, love and justice are the same, love wills the neighbor's good, love is the end justifies the means, love decides situationally.
Contextual and Flexible: Moral decisions are context-dependent and should be made in light of specific situations, not rigid rules.
Strengths: Emphasis on love and compassion, flexibility, context-sensitive, focuses on individual situations, aims to be practical and relevant.
Weaknesses: Vagueness of "love," subjectivity and potential for abuse, difficulty in applying consistently, antinomianism (rejection of rules), can love justify any means?, does it undermine moral principles and rules too much? Is it really distinct from utilitarianism focused on love?
Part 4: Applied Ethics (Examples of Ethical Issues)
Medical Ethics:
Euthanasia (Assisted Suicide): Ethical issues surrounding mercy killing or assisted dying for terminally ill or suffering patients. Voluntary, non-voluntary, involuntary euthanasia. Arguments for (autonomy, compassion, relief of suffering) and against (sanctity of life, slippery slope, potential for abuse). Different religious perspectives.
Abortion: Moral status of the fetus, rights of the pregnant woman, when does life begin? Pro-life vs. pro-choice positions. Various ethical theories and religious views.
Genetic Engineering and Enhancement: Ethical implications of genetic technologies (gene editing, designer babies, genetic screening). Issues of playing God, eugenics, justice, and human dignity.
Resource Allocation in Healthcare: Ethical dilemmas in distributing scarce medical resources (e.g., organ donation, rationing). Principles of justice, fairness, utility.
Business Ethics:
Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR): Ethical obligations of businesses beyond profit maximization. Responsibilities to stakeholders (employees, customers, community, environment).
Fair Trade and Global Justice: Ethical issues in international trade, fair labor practices, exploitation, global inequality.
Environmental Ethics and Sustainability: Businesses' responsibility to protect the environment, sustainability, climate change, resource depletion.
Honesty and Deception in Business: Ethics of advertising, marketing, sales, negotiation, and corporate communication.
Environmental Ethics:
Animal Rights: Moral status of animals, do animals have rights? Animal welfare vs. animal rights perspectives. Ethical issues in animal experimentation, factory farming, use of animals for food, entertainment, etc.
Environmental Stewardship vs. Deep Ecology: Different approaches to environmental ethics. Stewardship – human responsibility to care for creation (often from a religious perspective). Deep ecology – intrinsic value of nature, biocentric equality.
Climate Change Ethics: Moral obligations to address climate change, responsibilities of nations and individuals, intergenerational justice.
Resource Depletion and Sustainability: Ethical use of natural resources, sustainability, responsibility to future generations.
Issues of War and Peace:
Just War Theory: Conditions under which war is morally permissible (Jus ad bellum – right to go to war) and how war should be conducted ethically (Jus in bello – right conduct in war).
Pacifism: Moral opposition to all war and violence. Religious and secular forms of pacifism.
Terrorism: Ethical evaluation of terrorism, is it ever justified? Terrorism vs. just war, non-combatant immunity.
Nuclear Weapons and Weapons of Mass Destruction: Ethical dilemmas of nuclear deterrence, use of nuclear weapons, proliferation.
Social Justice and Equality:
Distributive Justice: Fair distribution of resources, wealth, opportunities in society. Theories of justice (e.g., egalitarianism, libertarianism, Rawls's theory of justice as fairness).
Equality and Discrimination: Ethical issues related to equality, discrimination based on race, gender, religion, sexuality, etc. Concepts of equal rights, equal opportunity, affirmative action.
Poverty and Global Inequality: Moral obligations to address poverty, hunger, global disparities in wealth and resources. Justice in global context.
Human Rights: Universal human rights as ethical principles. Justification and implementation of human rights. Cultural relativism vs. universalism of human rights.
Key Philosophers to Know
Plato: Ancient Greek philosopher, theory of Forms, concept of the soul, rationalism.
Aristotle: Ancient Greek philosopher, virtue ethics, Eudaimonia, Golden Mean, empiricism.
Immanuel Kant: Enlightenment philosopher, deontology, Categorical Imperative, duty-based ethics.
Jeremy Bentham: Utilitarianism, hedonistic calculus, act utilitarianism.
John Stuart Mill: Utilitarianism, rule utilitarianism, higher and lower pleasures, liberty.
Joseph Fletcher: Situation Ethics, agape love, contextual ethics.
Thomas Aquinas: Natural Law Theory, cosmological arguments, virtue ethics within a Christian framework.
David Hume: Skepticism about miracles, empiricism, critique of arguments for God's existence.