T4-6

4.1 - Neuromuscular Function Assessment

4.1.1 - Motor Unit Diagram

• Key components of a motor unit include:
  • Dendrite
  • Cell Body
  • Nucleus
  • Axon
  • Motor End Plate
  • Synapse
  • Muscle

4.1.2 - Role of Neurotransmitters

• Neurotransmitters: Chemicals for neuron communication at the synapse.
• Acetylcholine:
  • Transfers action potential from motor unit to muscle cells, triggering contraction.
  • Converts electrical impulses to chemical stimuli at the motor end plate.
  • Increases membrane permeability to sodium ions, leading to calcium release in muscle cells.
• Cholinesterase:
  • Enzyme breaking down acetylcholine.
  • Stops muscle contraction by causing membrane depolarization.

4.1.3 - Sliding Filament Theory

• Muscle contraction is initiated by nervous impulses.
• Key Terms:
  • Myofibrils: Units within muscle fibers containing actin and myosin.
  • Myofilaments: Thick & thin filaments of actin and myosin.
  • Sarcomere: Basic unit of muscle contraction.
  • Actin: Thin protein filaments.
  • Myosin: Thick protein filaments with heads that form cross-bridges with actin.
  • H Zone: Zone of myosin only (no overlap with actin).
  • A Band: Length of myosin, includes the overlap with actin.
  • Z Line: Boundary of sarcomeres.
  • Tropomyosin: Protein covering active sites on actin, preventing myosin binding.
  • Troponin: Protein that binds with calcium to move tropomyosin aside, allowing contraction.
  • Sarcoplasmic Reticulum: Stores calcium ions.
  • Calcium Ions: Trigger contraction when released.
  • ATP: Energy source for muscle contraction.
• Process:
  1. Calcium released upon nerve impulse stimulates contraction.
  2. Tropomyosin shifts, exposing actin’s active site.
  3. Myosin heads bind to active sites forming cross-bridges.
  4. ATP breakdown provides energy for the myosin heads to pull actin filaments inward, shortening the muscle.
  5. Muscle relaxation occurs when calcium ions are removed.

4.1.4 - Skeletal Muscle Fiber Types

• Slow-Twitch (Type I):
  • Structure: High myoglobin, more mitochondria.
  • Function: Endurance activities (aerobic).
• Fast-Twitch (Type IIa & IIb):
  • Structure: Lower myoglobin, fewer mitochondria.
  • Function: Short bursts of speed and power.
  • Type IIa: Intermediate fiber, high glycogen stores.
  • Type IIb: Primarily glycolytic, fatigue quickly, high glycogen content.

4.2 - Joint and Movement Type Assessment

4.2.1 - Types of Movement of Synovial Joints

• Flexion: Decreasing angle between body parts.
• Extension: Increasing angle between body parts.
• Abduction: Movement away from the median plane.
• Adduction: Movement towards the median plane.
• Pronation: Palms facing downwards.
• Supination: Palms facing upwards.
• Elevation: Raising a body part.
• Depression: Lowering a body part.
• Rotation: Turning around an axis.
• Circumduction: Circular movement of a limb.
• Dorsiflexion: Lifting the foot.
• Plantar Flexion: Pointing the toes.
• Eversion: Rolling the ankle outward.
• Inversion: Rolling the ankle inward.

4.2.2 - Types of Muscle Contraction

• Isotonic: Muscle changes length and causes movement.
  • Concentric: Muscle shortens (e.g. bicep curl).
  • Eccentric: Muscle lengthens (e.g. decelerating during a kick).
• Isometric: Muscle tension without length change (e.g. holding an object).
• Isokinetic: Movement at a constant speed (used in rehabilitation).

4.2.3 - Reciprocal Inhibition

• Agonist: The muscle primarily responsible for movement.
• Antagonist: The muscle that relaxes to allow movement to occur.

4.2.4 - Movements in Joint Action and Muscle Contraction

• Example:
  • Bicep curl: Agonist is the bicep (contracts concentrically), antagonist is the tricep (relaxes eccentrically).

4.2.5 - Delayed Onset Muscle Soreness (DOMS)

• DOMS occurs after intense exercise, especially eccentric actions.
• Caused by:
  • Micro-tears in muscle
  • Inflammatory response
  • Overstretching
  • Overtraining
• Symptoms appear 24-72 hours post-exercise.
• Prevention:
  • Decrease intensity during early training.
  • Gradual increase in intensity.
  • Proper warm-ups and cool-downs.

4.3 - Fundamentals of Biomechanics Assessment

4.3.1 - Key Terms in Biomechanics

• Force: Interaction between two objects.
• Speed: Rate of motion.
• Velocity: Speed with directional component.
• Displacement: Distance moved in a particular direction.
• Acceleration: Rate of change in velocity.
• Momentum: Mass in motion.
• Impulse: Product of force and time.
• Scalars: Measurements with magnitude only.
• Vectors: Measurements with both magnitude and direction.

4.3.2 - Graph Analysis

• Velocity-Time Graph: Shows constant acceleration, constant velocity, and deceleration.
• Distance-Time Graph: Displays distance covered over time intervals.
• Force-Time Graph: Details the impulse of a force, showcasing changes during a performance.

4.3.3 - Center of Mass

• Definition: The point where mass is evenly distributed. Factors:
  • Men generally have a higher center than women.
  • Center can be outside the body during certain movements (e.g., Fosbury Flop).

4.3.4 - Body Position in Sports

• Center changes based on position during movements, impacting stability and performance. Examples:
  • Activity with center of mass within: Running.
  • Activity with center of mass outside: High Jump.

4.3.5- 4.3.6 - Levers in the Body

• First Class Lever: Load, fulcrum, force (e.g., neck extension).
• Second Class Lever: Force, load, fulcrum (e.g., calf raises).
• Third Class Lever: Fulcrum, force, load (e.g., bicep curl).
• Lever diagram includes triceps-elbow, calf-ankle, and biceps-elbow examples.

4.3.7 - Newton’s Laws of Motion

1. Inertia: Objects at rest stay at rest unless acted on.
2. Acceleration: Mass and acceleration influence force ($F = ma$).
3. Action-Reaction: For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.

4.3.8 - Laws of Motion in Sports

• Newton’s laws describe motion in activities like sprint starts and jumps.
• Impulse-momentum relationship and conservation of momentum are crucial for performance.

4.3.9 - Angular Momentum Concept

• Angular Momentum: Measure of rotation.
• $Angular Momentum = Angular Velocity imes Moment of Inertia$.

4.3.10 - Angular Momentum in Sports

• Changes in body position affect moment of inertia and angular velocity, exemplified by gymnasts.

4.3.11 - Factors in Projectile Motion

• Includes: speed, height, and angle of release.

4.3.12 - Bernoulli Principle

• Describes effects of airflow on projectile motion.
• States that higher airflow leads to lower pressure and results in lift on spinning objects (e.g., golf ball).

5.1 - Characteristics and Classification of Skill

5.1.1 - Definition of Skill

• Skill is the execution of learned movements directed at a goal (McMorris 2004).

5.1.2 - Types of Skill

• Cognitive: Problem-solving abilities.
• Perceptual: Interpreting sensory information.
• Motor: Execution of physical skills.
• Perceptual Motor: Combination of thought/interpretation and movement.

5.1.3 - Motor Skill Classifications

• (i) Gross-Fine: Whole body vs. specific movements (e.g., kicking vs. writing).
• (ii) Open-Closed: Environment influenced vs. stationary actions (e.g., football vs. free throw).
• (iii) Discrete-Serial-Continuous: Defined start/end, sequence, or cyclical (e.g., jump, dance).
• (iv) Externally-Internally Paced: Timing dictated by environment vs. performer (e.g., javelin vs. swimming).
• (v) Interaction Continuum: Individual, coactive, interactive.

5.1.4 - Skill Profiles in Sports

• Compare sporting skills across classifications.

5.1.5 - Ability Definition

• Ability is a capacity that relates to performing various skills.

5.1.6 - Fleishman’s Abilities

• Distinction between physical proficiency abilities (related to fitness) and perceptual-motor abilities (skill-related).

5.1.7 - Technique Definition

• Technique: the specific method of performing a skill.

5.1.8 - Relationship Between Ability, Skill, and Technique

• $Skill = Ability + Selecting Appropriate Technique$.

5.1.9 - Skilled vs. Novice Performers

• Comparison factors: consistency, accuracy, control, learning stage, efficiency, goal direction, and fluency.

5.2 - Information Processing

5.2.1 - Information Processing Model

• Model: Input-Decision Making-Output.

5.2.2 - Welford’s Model

• Steps: Sensory input, perception, short/long-term memory, decision-making, effector control, feedback.

5.2.3 - Sensory Input Components

• Exteroceptors: External environment info.
• Proprioceptors: Body position and movement.
• Interoceptors: Internal body signals.

5.2.4 - Signal Detection Process

• Steps: Detection-Comparison-Recognition (DCR). Influenced by noise, stimulus intensity, and sensory efficiency.

5.2.5 - Memory Characteristics

• Short-Term Sensory Store: Immediate input, <1 second duration.
• Short-Term Memory: Holds 5-9 items for seconds.
• Long-Term Memory: Unlimited capacity, retains information for long periods.

5.2.6 - Selective Attention and Memory

• Selective Attention filters relevant information to avoid overload, crucial for performance.

5.2.7 - Memory Improvement Techniques

• Methods: rehearsal, coding, clarity, chunking, organization, brevity.

5.2.8 - Response Time Definition

• $Response Time = Reaction Time + Movement Time$.

5.2.9 - Response Time Influencing Factors

• Factors: sex, age, fitness, fatigue, personality, number of stimuli, intensity of stimuli, length of neural pathways. Hick’s Law applies.

5.2.10 - Psychological Refractory Period Evaluation

• PRP: Delay caused by responding to multiple stimuli; emphasizes single task processing.

5.2.11 - Motor Programme Definition

• Motor programmes are entire movement patterns stored in memory.

5.2.12 - Open vs. Closed Loop

• Open Loop: Fast actions with no feedback (e.g. serves).
• Closed Loop: Continuous feedback and adjustments (e.g. cycling, running).

5.2.13 - Feedback Role

• Types: intrinsic, extrinsic, results knowledge, performance knowledge.

5.2.14 - Feedback Learning Process Role

• Importance: reinforces learning, motivates, adapts performance, provides constructive criticism.

5.3 - Principle of Skill Learning

5.3.1 - Learning vs. Performance

• Learning: Permanent improvement from practice.
• Performance: Temporary and fluctuating outcomes.

5.3.2 - Learning Phases

1. Cognitive/Verbal: Initial stage, basic comprehension.
2. Associative/Motor: Refinement and increased consistency.
3. Autonomous: Highly skilled with less conscious control.

5.3.3 - Learning Curves

• Types: positive acceleration, negative acceleration, linear, plateau.

5.3.4 - Factors in Learning Rates

• Individual differences, age, motivation, task difficulty, environment impact.

5.3.5 - Transfer Concept

• Ability to apply learned skills to new contexts.

5.3.6 - Transfer Types

• Positive, negative, zero, skill to skill, practice to performance, ability to skill, bilateral, stage to stage, principles to skills.

5.3.7 - Practice Types

• Types: distributed, massed, fixed, variable, mental practice.

5.3.8 - Presentation Types

• Whole, whole-part-whole, progressive part, part methods.

5.3.9 - Teaching Styles Spectrum

• Styles: command, reciprocal, problem-solving.

6.1 - Statistical Analysis

6.1.1 - Error Bars

• Graphically represent variability in data.

6.1.2 - Mean and Standard Deviation Calculation

• Students should calculate using calculators or spreadsheets.

6.1.3 - Standard Deviation Significance

• Summarizes spread of data.
• 68% values within ±1 SD; 95% within ±2 SD in normal distribution.

6.1.4 - Standard Deviation in Data Comparison

• Small SD implies tightly grouped data, large SD suggests wider spread.

6.1.5 - Coefficient of Variation

• Ratio of SD to mean, expressed as a percentage.

6.1.6 - T-Test Application

• Used to compare means, with different forms (paired/unpaired).

6.1.7 - Correlation vs. Causation

• Correlation doesn't imply one variable causes changes in another.

6.2 - Study Design

6.2.1 - Importance of Fitness Test Validity

• Specificity: Test relevance to the sport.
• Accuracy: Close to true measurement.
• Reliability: Consistency across multiple trials.
• Validity: Accurate measurement of intended fitness components.

6.2.2 - Study Design Importance

• Proper design proves causality through control groups and methods.

6.2.3 - PAR-Q Importance

• Assesses readiness for a general training program.

6.2.4 - Test Evaluation

• Evaluate field, lab, submaximal, maximal tests, comparing advantages and disadvantages.

6.3 - Components of Fitness

6.3.1 - Health vs. Performance-Related Fitness

• Health-related: body composition, cardiorespiratory fitness, flexibility, endurance, strength.
• Performance-related: agility, balance, coordination, power, reaction time, speed.

6.3.2 - Major Components of Fitness

• Defined and sport examples provided for each fitness component.

6.3.3 - Fitness Tests Evaluation

• Evaluate various tests on validity, reliability, and limitations for different fitness components (cardiovascular capacity, flexibility, endurance, agility, etc.).

6.4 - Principles of Training

6.4.1 - General Training Program Elements

• Warm-up, endurance training, cool-down, flexibility, resistance training, recreational activities.

6.4.2 - Key Principles of Training Design

• Progressive Overload: Incrementally increase exercise load.
• Specificity: Tailoring training to specific performance aspects.
• Reversibility: Fitness loss occurs when training stops.
• Periodisation: Structuring training year into phases.
• Variety: Include diverse activities to maintain engagement.

6.4.3 - Monitoring Exercise Intensity

• Methods: heart rate measurement, Karvonen method, Rating of Perceived Exertion (Borg Scale).