RELIGION

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Figure 4.1. The map of the five major religions in the world

Religion is derived from the Latin word meaning "to tie" or "to bind." It comes from the Latin terms religare (Palmer, 2004) and religio (Saucier & Skrzypinska, 2006), which refer to the connection between humanity and the divine. Religion also unites people into a community that shares common beliefs and practices. In this way, religion serves as a bridge between the human world and the sacred world. According to Molloy (2010), the prefix re means "again," while lig means "to join" or "to connect," emphasizing the relationship between people and the divine. Another related Latin term, relegare, means "to tread carefully" and highlights the importance of showing respect and care for both the natural and supernatural worlds (Palmer, 2004).

MAJOR RELIGIONS AND BELIEF SYSTEMS OF THE WORLD

HINDUISM

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Figure 4.2. Statues of Hindu gods adorn a temple in Singapore.

Hinduism is the oldest major religion in the world. It originated in the Indus Valley of India around 1500 BCE and was not founded by a single prophet. Instead, it developed over many centuries through the beliefs and practices of different communities. As an eternal religion, Hinduism does not actively seek to convert followers of other faiths. It also accepts different ways of praying and worshipping, as well as various manifestations of its deities.

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Figure 4.3. Shiva (left), Vishnu (center), and Brahma (right)

Hinduism is based on five fundamental beliefs. The first is the belief in one Supreme Being, who is manifested in three principal forms: Brahma, the Creator; Vishnu, the Sustainer; and Shiva, the Destroyer. The second is the Law of Dharma, which teaches that the universe is governed by moral order and that people should fulfill their duties and live according to ethical principles. The third is the Law of Karma, which states that every action has consequences and that individuals experience the results of their good or bad deeds. The fourth is the Doctrine of Reincarnation, which teaches that after death, a person is reborn into another form of existence based on the karma accumulated in previous lives. The fifth is Moksha, which is the ultimate goal of Hindu life. It refers to liberation from the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth.

BUDDHISM

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Figure 4.4. The statues of Buddha

Buddhism is a faith that was founded by Siddhartha Gautama—also known as the Buddha—more than 2,500 years ago in India. With an estimated 343 million to 506 million followers around the globe, Buddhism is one of the major world religions. However, some scholars describe Buddhism as a philosophy or a moral code rather than an organized religion, because it is a nontheistic faith with no god or deity to worship.

Many of the beliefs and practices of Buddhism revolve around the concept of suffering and its causes. Buddhism has historically been most prominent in East and Southeast Asia, but its influence is growing throughout the West. Many Buddhist ideas and philosophies overlap with those of other faiths.

Buddhism Beliefs and Practices

Some key Buddhist beliefs include:

Followers of Buddhism don’t acknowledge a supreme god or deity. They instead focus on achieving enlightenment, a state of inner peace and wisdom. When followers reach this spiritual echelon, they’re said to have experienced nirvana.

The path to enlightenment is attained by utilizing morality, meditation and wisdom. Buddhists often meditate because they believe it helps awaken truth.

The religion’s founder, Buddha, is considered an extraordinary being but not a god. The word “Buddha” means “enlightened.”

Buddha’s most important teachings, known as The Four Noble Truths, are essential to understanding the religion.

Buddhists embrace the concepts of karma and reincarnation. Karma is the belief in a cosmic law of cause and effect. Reincarnation is a continuous cycle of rebirth after death.

Buddhism encourages its people to avoid self-indulgence and also self-denial.

Followers of Buddhism can worship in temples or in their own homes.

Buddhist monks, or bhikkhus, follow a strict code of conduct, which includes celibacy.

There is no single Buddhist symbol; rather, a number of images have evolved to represent Buddhist beliefs. This includes the lotus flower, the eight-spoked dharma wheel and the Bodhi tree. Another symbol associated with Buddhism is the swastika, whose name means “good fortune” or “being happy” in Sanskrit. The ancient symbol, also commonly used in the Hindu religion, was altered and adopted by Germany’s Nazi Party in 1920. (The Nazi version is a clockwise-rotating swastika set at a 45-degree angle.)

There are many philosophies and interpretations within Buddhism, making it a tolerant and evolving religion. Given this and Buddhism’s lack of a deity, some scholars consider it a way of life or a spiritual traditions rather than an organized religion.

Buddhism’s Founder and Origins

The founder of Buddhism was Siddhartha Gautama, who later became known as “the Buddha.” Scholars debate when he lived, though the general consensus is sometime between the 6th century and 4th century BCE Many sources state Gautama was born around 563 BCE, though others say it was as early as 623 BCE or as late as 448 BCE.

Gautama was born into a wealthy family as a prince in present-day Nepal. Although he had an easy life, he was moved by suffering in the world. He decided to give up his lavish lifestyle and endure poverty. For nearly six years, he undertook fasting and other austerities, but these techniques proved ineffectual, and he abandoned them. He eventually promoted the idea of the “Middle Way,” which means existing between two extremes. Thus, he sought a life without social indulgences but also without deprivation.

After regaining his strength, he seated himself under a Bodhi tree in west-central India and promised not to rise until he had attained the supreme enlightenment. After fighting off Mara, an evil spirit who tempted him with worldly comforts and desires, Siddhartha reached the spiritual state of enlightenment, becoming a Buddha at the age of 35. He gave his first sermon in Sarnath, India, (just north of the Hindu holy city of Varanasi) and spent the rest of his life teaching others about how to achieve enlightenment.

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Figure 4.5. Siddharta Gautama, the Historical Buddha

When Buddha died around 483 BCE, his followers began to organize a religious movement. Buddha’s teachings, known as Dharma, became the foundation for what would develop into Buddhism. Dharma encompasses the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path. Additionally, Buddha taught that wisdom, kindness, patience, generosity and compassion were important virtues.

In the 3rd century BCE, the Mauryan Indian emperor Ashoka the Great made Buddhism the state religion of India. Buddhist monasteries were built, and missionary work was encouraged. Over the next few centuries, Buddhism began to spread beyond India. The thoughts and philosophies of Buddhists became diverse, with some followers interpreting ideas differently from others.

Buddhism also faced challenges from outside cultures and other religions. Around the sixth century CE, the Huns invaded India and destroyed hundreds of Buddhist monasteries, but the intruders were eventually driven out of the country. Then, during the Middle Ages, Islam began to spread quickly in the region, forcing Buddhism into the background. Nonetheless, Buddhism eventually spread to Central and Southeast Asia, China, Korea, Japan and, in the 20th century, to the West.

Types of Buddhism

Today, many forms of Buddhism exist around the world. Each reveres certain texts and has slightly different interpretations of Buddha’s teachings. The three main types that represent specific geographical areas include:

Theravada Buddhism: Prevalent in Thailand, Sri Lanka, Cambodia, Laos and Burma

Mahayana Buddhism: Prevalent in China, Japan, Taiwan, Korea, Singapore and Vietnam

Tibetan Buddhism: Prevalent in Tibet, Nepal, Mongolia, Bhutan as well as parts of Russia and northern India

Followers of Tibetan Buddhism believe their leading monk, the Dalai Lama, is a reincarnation of a past lama who has agreed to be born again to help humanity. The spiritual leader also governed Tibet until 1959 when China took control. To date, there have been 14 Dalai Lamas. The current Dalai Lama, Lhamo Thondup, was born in 1935.

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Figure 4.6. Tibetan spiritual leader the Dalai Lama looks on as he sits on his ceremonial chair at the Tibetan Institute of Performing Arts in Dharmsala, India, on Oct. 29, 2019.

Despite some differences, all Buddhists live by five moral precepts that prohibit: killing living things, taking what is not given, sexual misconduct, lying and using drugs or alcohol.

Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path

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Figure 4.7. The Four Noble Truths of Buddhism

The Buddha taught that there are Four Noble Truths that collectively explain why humans hurt and how to overcome suffering. The Four Noble Truths are:

The truth of suffering (dukkha)

The truth of the cause of suffering (samudaya)

The truth of the end of suffering (nirhodha)

The truth of the path that frees us from suffering (magga)

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Figure 4.8. The eightfold path of Buddhism

The path described in the fourth Noble Truth is known as the Eightfold Path. The Eightfold Path outlines eight ideals for ethical conduct, mental discipline and the achievement of wisdom. The Buddha taught that following these principles, listed in no particular order, would end suffering:

Right understanding (Samma ditthi)

Right thought (Samma sankappa)

Right speech (Samma vaca)

Right action (Samma kammanta)

Right livelihood (Samma ajiva)

Right effort (Samma vayama)

Right mindfulness (Samma sati)

Right concentration (Samma samadhi)

Buddhism teaches that suffering is caused by desire, attachment, and ignorance. By letting go of these, individuals can free themselves from suffering and achieve Nirvana, a state of complete peace and freedom from sorrow, greed, and the cycle of birth and rebirth.

CONFUCIANISM

Confucianism is a philosophical and ethical tradition based on the teachings of Kong Fu Zi, also known as Confucius. He believed that people are naturally good and are born with te, or moral virtue. According to Confucius, education plays an important role in developing this natural goodness and preparing individuals to become responsible members of society.

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Figure 4.9. Confucius, statue in Shanghai, China.

Confucianism emphasizes the importance of maintaining harmony through the Five Fundamental Relationships: father and son, elder brother and younger brother, husband and wife, ruler and subject, and friend and friend. In each relationship, those in positions of authority are expected to care for those under them and to lead by good example. Traditional Confucian teachings also place greater authority on elders than on younger people and regard filial piety, or respect and devotion to one's parents and elders, as the highest moral duty.

The teachings of Confucianism are preserved in the Five Classics—I Ching (Book of Changes), Shu Ching (Book of History), Shih Ching (Book of Poetry), Li Chi (Book of Rites), and Ch'un Ch'iu (Spring and Autumn Annals)—and the Four Books. During the period of imperial China, Confucianism became the country's most influential philosophy. Its principles shaped the education of government officials, influenced political institutions, and established standards of proper behavior in society. Today, Confucianism continues to emphasize moral character, practical wisdom, respect for others, and harmonious social relationships.

JUDAISM

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Figure 4.10. A boy reads from the Torah during his Bar Mitzvah. A Bar Mitzvah is a ceremony that celebrates the time when a boy becomes an adult in the eyes of the religion.

Judaism is one of the oldest monotheistic religions in the world. It originated in the Middle East around 2000 BCE through God's covenant with Abraham and was later strengthened through the leadership of Moses, who received the Torah, or the Law of God. Judaism teaches belief in one God, known as Yahweh, who established a special covenant with the Israelites as His chosen people. The Torah, which consists of the first five books of the Old Testament, serves as the foundation of Jewish law, morality, and religious life. These five books are Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy, collectively known as the Pentateuch.

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Figure 4.11. The Tanakh or Hebrew Bible

The sacred writings of Judaism are collectively called the Tanakh, also known as the Hebrew Bible or Hebrew Scriptures. The Tanakh is divided into three sections: the Torah (The Teachings), which contains God's laws and instructions given to Moses on Mount Sinai; the Nevi'im (The Prophets), which includes the writings of the Former and Latter Prophets; and the Ketuvim (The Writings), which consists of literary works based on human wisdom and experience, some of which reflect Greek, Persian, and Egyptian influences on the Israelites. In addition to the Tanakh, Judaism recognizes the Talmud, which contains the Mishnah and Gemara, and the Midrash as important supplementary sacred writings. Jews also believe in the coming of the Messiah, who will establish peace and justice throughout the world.

Torah (The Teachings)

Nevi’im (The Prophets)

Kethuvim (The Writings)

Genesis

Exodus

Leviticus

Numbers

Deuteronomy

(Former prophets)

Joshua, Judges, First and Second Samuel, and First and Second Kings

(Latter prophets)

Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the Twelve (treated as one book) consisting of Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi

Psalms, Proverbs, Job, and the Festal Scrolls (Song of Songs, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, and Esther), Daniel, Ezra, Nehemiah, and First and Second Chronicles.

CHRISTIANITY

Christianity emerged during the first century CE from Judaism and is centered on the life, teachings, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ. It began in Judea, located in present-day Israel and Palestine, before spreading throughout the Roman Empire and eventually across Europe and the rest of the world. Christians believe in one God who exists in three divine Persons—the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit—a doctrine known as the Holy Trinity. They also believe that Jesus Christ is the Son of God and the Savior of humanity, and that salvation is received through God's grace by faith rather than through good works alone.

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Figure 4.12. Christ on the Cross, 1870, by Carl Heinrich Bloch, depicting Jesus's crucifixion

The Christian faith is founded on the Bible, which is divided into the Old Testament and the New Testament. The Old Testament contains the books of the Hebrew Bible, although arranged differently, while the New Testament records the life and teachings of Jesus Christ, the early development of Christianity, and Christian beliefs about the end times.

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Figure 4.13. Saint Paul by Pompeo Batoni

The New Testament consists of four major sections. The first is the Gospels—Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John—which proclaim the "good news" of Jesus Christ. The English word gospel comes from the Old English godspell, which is derived from the Greek word evangelion and the Latin word evangelium, both meaning "good news" or "good tidings." The second section is the Acts of the Apostles, which describes the growth of the early Christian Church. The third section is the Epistles, a collection of twenty-one letters written by the apostles to guide and encourage Christian communities. The word epistle comes from the Greek word epistole, meaning "letter" or "message." The final section is the Book of Revelation, which presents prophetic visions concerning the end of the age and God's final victory over evil.

13 Pauline Epistles

8 General Epistles

Romans

1 Corinthians

2 Corinthians

Galatians

Ephesians (Prison Epistle)

1 Timothy (Pastoral Epistle)

2 Timothy (Pastoral Epistle)

Titus (Pastoral Epistle)

Philemon (Prison Epistle)

Philippians (Prison Epistle)

Colossians (Prison Epistle)

1 Thessalonians

2 Thessalonians

Hebrews

James

1 Peter

2 Peter

1 John

2 John

3 John

Jude

ISLAM

Islam is the second-largest religion in the world after Christianity. The most recent data, from 2020, estimate between 1.9 billion and 2.02 billion people worldwide believe in Islam. These followers are called Muslims and worship at mosques.

As one of the three Abrahamic religions (alongside Judaism and Christianity), Islam is a monotheistic faith that worships one god who followers call Allah. The word Islam means “submission” or “surrender” to God’s will, just as its faithful surrender to the will of Allah.

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Figure 4.14. Thousands of pilgrims descend upon Masjid al-Haram, the Grand Sacred Mosque of Mecca, Saudi Arabia, as part of their hajj.

Islam originated during the seventh century CE in Mecca, Arabia. It is regarded as the continuation and fulfillment of the monotheistic tradition that began with Abraham. Muslims believe in one God, known as Allah, and recognize a long line of prophets, including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and Muhammad. They believe that Muhammad is the final prophet, often referred to as the "Seal of the Prophets." Islam also teaches belief in the Day of Judgment and in eternal life after death.

Muhammad and the Founding of Islam

The Prophet Muhammad, sometimes spelled Mohammed or Mohammad, was born in Mecca, Saudi Arabia, in 570 CE. Muslims believe he was the final prophet sent by God to reveal their faith to humankind.

According to Islamic texts and tradition, an angel named Gabriel visited Muhammad in 610 while he was meditating in a cave. The angel ordered Muhammad to recite the words of Allah. Muslims believe Muhammad continued to receive revelations from Allah throughout the rest of his life.

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Figure 4.15. Image of Gabriel visiting Muhammad from the Siyer-i Nebi

Starting in about 613, Muhammad began preaching the messages he received throughout Mecca. He taught that there was no other God but Allah and that Muslims should devote their lives to this God.

In 622, Muhammad traveled from Mecca to Medina, another city in present-day Saudi Arabia, with his supporters. This journey became known as the Hijra (also spelled Hegira or Hijrah), and its start marked the beginning of the Islamic calendar.

At his home in Medina, Muhammad is credited with building the first mosque in his house’s courtyard. Mosques today follow some of the same principles he established there. For example, Muslim prayer is often conducted in a mosque’s large open space or outdoor courtyard.

Some seven years after arriving in Medina, the prophet and his many followers returned to Mecca and conquered the region. Muhammad continued to preach until his death in 632.

Abu Bakr and the Caliphate System

After Muhammaad’s death, Islam began to spread rapidly. A series of Muslim leaders, known as caliphs, became successors to Muhammad as spiritual and civil heads. This system of leadership became known as a caliphate.

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Figure 4.16. Muhammad (left) and Abu Bakr hiding in the cave in Jabal Thawr from Siyer-i Nebi.

The first caliph was Abu Bakr, Muhammad’s father-in-law and close friend. Abu Bakr died about two years after he was elected. Caliph Umar, another father-in-law of Muhammad, succeeded Abu Bakr in 634. When Umar was assassinated six years after being named caliph, one of Muhammad’s sons-in-law named Uthman took the role. Uthman was also killed, and Ali, Muhammad’s cousin as well as his son-in-law, was selected as the next caliph.

During the reign of the first four caliphs, Muslims conquered large regions in the Middle East, including Syria, Palestine, Iran and Iraq. Islam also spread throughout areas in Europe, Africa and Asia.

The caliphate system lasted for centuries and eventually evolved into the Ottoman Empire, which controlled large regions in the Middle East from about 1517 until 1917, when World War I ended the Ottoman reign.

Types of Islam: Sunnis and Shiites

When Muhammad died, there was debate over who should replace him as leader. This led to a schism in Islam, and two major sects emerged: Sunni and Shiite.

Sunnis represent as many as 90 percent of Muslims worldwide. They accept that the first four caliphs were the true successors to Muhammad.

Shiite Muslims believe that only the caliph Ali and his descendants are the real successors to Muhammad. They deny the legitimacy of the first three caliphs. Today, Shiite Muslims have a considerable presence in Iran, Pakistan, Iraq and India.

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Figure 4.17. The world map of Sunni and Shia Islam

The sacred scripture of Islam is the Qur'an, which Muslims believe to be the literal word of God revealed to Muhammad. Another important source of Islamic teachings is the Hadith, a collection of written accounts describing the life of Muhammad, including his sayings, actions, decisions, and personal character. According to Molloy (2010), the word Hadith means "report" or "recollections." The word Islam means "surrender" or "submission," referring to complete submission to the will of God. A follower of Islam is called a Muslim, meaning "one who submits to God."

The practice of Islam is based on the Five Pillars of Islam, which serve as the foundation of a Muslim's faith and daily life. These are the Shahada, or declaration of faith; Salat, the five daily prayers; Zakat, the giving of alms to those in need; Sawm, fasting during the month of Ramadan; and Hajj, the pilgrimage to Mecca that every able Muslim is expected to perform at least once in a lifetime.

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Figure 4.18. The Five Pillars of Islam

Another important concept in Islam is jihad, which means "struggle." Although it is not universally recognized as an official pillar of Islam, some Muslims regard it as a sixth pillar. Jihad may refer to the physical struggle to defend Islam when necessary. More importantly, it refers to the personal psychological, spiritual, and moral struggle to overcome one's inner weaknesses and resist evil in society in order to live an ethical life according to the principles of Islam.

Sharia Law

Sharia law is the faith-based code of conduct that directs Muslims on how they should live in nearly every aspect of their lives. Conduct is separated into halal, meaning “permissible,” and haram, meaning “forbidden,” actions.

Sharia requires men and women to dress modestly. It outlines marriage guidelines and other moral principles for Muslims. The code also includes dietary restrictions, such as abstaining from alcohol, drugs and pork.

In some countries, Sharia law also dictates the legal system. If crimes are committed, Sharia law is known for its harsh punishments. For example, the punishment for theft is amputating a person’s hand. Adultery can carry the penalty of death by stoning. However, many Muslims do not support such extreme measures.

Muslim Holidays and Islamic Calendar

The two major Muslim holidays are:

Eid al-Adha, which celebrates the Prophet Abraham’s willingness to sacrifice his son for Allah

Eid al-Fitr, which marks the end of Ramadan—the Islamic holy month of fasting and prayer

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Figure 4.19. Indian Muslims offer prayers during Eid al-Fitr at Jama Masjid Mosque in New Delhi on June 26, 2017.

SHINTOISM

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Figure 4.20. Fushimi Inari Shintō shrine, Kyōto, Japan.

Despite the difficulties facing the Asian economies in the 1990s, it remains true that one of the strongest and most significant nations in the world today is Japan. This small group of islands has produced a remarkable people. For technological ingenuity, social cohesion, national self-confidence, and elaborate metaphysics, few can match the Japanese. Japanese religion is very complex. The Japanese weave together many elements: Confucianism from the Chinese, Buddhism, and Shintoism. Indeed, such is the elaborate nature of Japanese religion, some feel that "Shintoism" as a tradition in its own right does not really exist. It is true that Shinto strand has always been combined with other strands but, nevertheless, there is a certain set of ideas that seem to have distinctive roots. These roots are the Shinto tradition; a tradition that can (and has) accommodated insights from Buddhism and Confucianism.

The Shinto Mind

The first reading is a delightful creation that captures the importance of Japan in the history of the universe. As human life is a result of human union; so the creation of land and sea is a result of divine union - a divine union the male and female gods.

World-Views

Kami

Shinto is the way of the Kami. Kami, however, is a difficult term to explain. It certainly includes the gods, yet it is more. Many things within nature are kami; the sun, rocks, and mountains are all described as kami. The object of life is to cooperate with these reliable and trustworthy forces. Trained priests who have cultivated a disposition of purity are able to communicate with the kami. The term captures the transcendent element that affects all nature and life. The brilliant Shinto scholar Motoori Wonnaga (1730-1801) described kami as follows:

Worship of the Sun Goddess

The land of Japan is important; the people of Japan are creation of the kami; and so the Emperor of Japan has a special status. From the middle of the nineteenth century up until the defeat of Japan in the Second World War, State Shinto was officially affirmed in Japan. Despite the obvious problems, it reflects certain fundamental and abiding features of Shintoism. The patriotism of the people, the love of the county, the commitment to the community - all these features have a theological origin.

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Figure 4.21. Amaterasu, one of the central kami in the Shinto faith

The sun goddess (Amaterasu-Omikami) is the good power from whom the rules of Japan emerged. In the mid-1930s, the Department of Education published certain educational textbooks that link the sun goddess with the emperor. Although the divinity of the emperor has been officially repudiated, the patriotism and love of country is still there. This reading is from the Teacher's Manual in National History.

Institutions and Rituals

In many Japanese homes, there is a kamidana. Often it is just a small shelf, which is used to reverence the ancestors and honor the gods. In some companies space and support is provided for a local shrine or temple. Most shrines will have a priest attached, responsible for maintaining good relations between the gods and the world.

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Figure 4.22. Shintō shrine with paper streamers, Fujiyoshida, Japan.

Two readings illustrate the significance of these shrines. The first, by Professor Herbert, reports on the extraordinary impact these shrines can have on those who go there. He makes special mention of the Ise shrine, which is considered one of the holiest places in Shinto. It is here the Sun Goddess is enshrined. The second extract is an example of a norito (a prayer). This is used at the "Service of Praying for the Crops." The hope is that the unity of human effort and divine power will create an abundance of good food. It is a big mistake to imagine that human effort alone is sufficient.

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Figure 4.23. Celebrants carry a mikoshi (portable shrine) during a matsuri, Kamakura, Japan.

Festivals are important in Japan. Many have links with a Shinto understanding of the world. Ian Reader captures the excitement and significance of the New Year festival in the following extract.

Ethical Expression

Some believe that the emphasis on the kami in everything provides an ethic that has real ecological possibilities. For if everything is sacred, Shintoism is often criticized for the lack of overt ethical discussion. In actual fact there is a wealth of ethical reflection built around the concept of kannagara-no-michi, as Jean Herbert explains in this extract.

The importance of purity, mentioned by Jean Herbert, is central to Shintoism. If one is polluted (for example, by death), then access to the Kami is denied. Purification at a shrine can enable the pollution to be cleared and the human can then be reconciled to the Kami.

State Shinto

The centrality of Japan and the Emperor in Shintoism has already been mentioned. Shintoism is a Japanese religion, which makes global claims, but is still exclusively intended for the Japanese.

The state endorsement of Shintoism became an issue after the defeat of Japan in the Second World War. The extract below describes the demands of the Allies and the response of the Emperor.

Role of Women

Women have a special status and power because they give birth to children. Although their roles are defined around the home, they have a much more active role in the religious tradition. As these reading shows women can be forceful and strong. This is taken from one of the oldest texts in Shintoism, probably compiled about 712 CE. It is called the Kojiki.

Modern Expression

As with other religious traditions, Shintoism has its different groupings. Traditionally, these groupings are classified into three. First, there are traditional sects. These include: Shinto Taikyo, which worships the first three deities found in the Kojiki along with other kami; Izumo Oyashirakyo, which concentrates on Okuni-nushi no Kami; Shinto Shuseiha, which links the major deities with Confucianism; Shinto Taiseikyo, which stresses the importance of meditation and purification; Shinshukyo, which has mystical roots; and Shinnkyo, which believes that worship of Amaterasu is central.

Second, the importance of nature is seen in the mountain worship sects: Ontakekyo sect is linked with Mount Ontakekyo; Fusokyo sect believes in Sengan Daishin, a deity from Mount Fuji: and the Jikkokyo sect is also linked with Mount Fuji. Third, revelation experiences given to charismatic founders form the basis of five further sects. These are Kurozumikyo, Konkokyo, Misogikyo, Omoto, and Tenri-kyo.

This diversity in Shintoism illustrates a tradition that is very much alive. A good twentieth-century defender of Shintoism is Sokyo Ono. Dr. Ono was a professor at Kokugakuin Daigaku - a Shinto university. This is a university responsible for the training of Shinto priests. The following reading is taken from Sokyo Ono's book called Shinto: The Kami Way. It is superb exposition of the insights and strengths of the Shinto tradition.