Study Guide: Criminological Theories

Chapter Overview: Criminological Theories

1. Criminology Theories in Context

Purpose of Theory: Proposes explanations for particular phenomena.
Development: Criminologists scientifically develop theories and empirically test them to identify causes and effects of crime.
Characteristics of Sound Criminological Theory:
  - Logical Consistency: Makes sense based on empirical research findings.
  - Precision: Explanations must be precise enough to allow for testing.
  - Empirical Validation: Provides compelling accounts of past and present behaviors and predictions for future behavior.
Forms of Theory:
- Unit Theory: Addresses specific problems.
- Meta-Theory: Theory about theories.
Historical Overview of Crime and Punishment:
  - Biblical Times: Severe punishments such as stoning and crucifixion.
  - Trial Methods:
    - Trial by Battle: Combat between accuser and accused.
    - Trial by Ordeal: Infliction of painful tests on accused.
  - Precolonial South Africa: Brutal punishments for accusations of witchcraft.
  - 18th Century: Shift towards Enlightenment thinking, emphasizing democracy and human rights, leading to reforms in criminal justice views.

2. Main Theories: Classical School of Criminology

Overview: First naturalistic explanation for crime existence.
Key Theorists: Cesare Beccaria (1738-1794) and Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832).
Principles:
- Law and criminal justice administration should be based on rationality and human rights.
- Advocated for civil rights, determinant sentencing, deterrence, and standard rules of evidence and testimony.
Influence: Shift in views towards crime; inspired humanitarian reform and development of theory for over a century, becoming foundational in Western criminal codes.
Revival in the 20th Century: Led to rational choice theory, which perceives individuals as rational economic actors in their decision-making (associated with Adam Smith, Cornish & Clarke).

3. Main Theories: Positivist School of Thought

Historical Context: Emerged late 19th to early 20th centuries, influenced by physical and natural sciences.
Fundamental Arguments: Empirical data could illustrate biological, psychological, and social origins of criminal behavior.
Focus: Rehabilitation and treatment of offenders as preventive measures against crime.
Founders: Cesare Lombroso (1913), Enrico Ferri (1856-1929), Raffaele Garofalo (1852-1934), and possibly Franz Joseph Gall (1758-1828).
Key Assumptions:
  - Branches:
    - a) Individual Positivism: Focus on biological and psychological traits.
    - b) Sociological Positivism: Focus on social origins of criminal behavior.

3.1 Individual Positivism

Concept: Views crime as not solely a product of free choice.
Biological Perspectives:
  - Morphological Approach: Assumes physical body type determines personality (born criminals).
  - Genetic Approach: Beliefs that deviant behavior can be inherited.
  - Biochemical-Neurophysiological Approach: Suggests distortions in thought processes lead to deviant behavior.
  - Bio-Social Approach: Interplay between psychological and environmental factors shapes criminal behavior.

3.2 Psychological Perspectives

General Forensic Psychology: Investigates emotional and mental stress impacts on individuals.
Key Theorists:
- Freud: Highlights the role of the super-ego in controlling behavior.
- Eysenck: Proposes a bio-psycho-social model where personality traits (neuroticism, extroversion) influence deviance.

4. Main Theories: Sociological Perspectives

Structure Theory:
- Examines how social organization affects human behavior.
Process Theory:
- Explains how individuals become criminals.

4.1 Social and Personal Disorganization

Chicago School/Concentric Zone Model:
  - Developed by Clifford Shaw and Henry McKay (1942).
  - Describes human behavior as influenced by social and physical environments.
  - Key Concepts:
    - Social disorganization: A state of anomie leading to deviance, opposing social control.
    - High crime areas identified typically emerge around urban centers and decline in suburban areas.

4.2 Concentric Zone Model Zones

Zone 1: Central Business District (CBD) with high population density due to work opportunities and low-cost housing.
Zone 2: Transitional industrial areas attracting immigrants due to job availability.
Zone 3: Working Class Residential Areas.
Zone 4: Middle-Class Residential Zone with higher-cost housing.
Zone 5: Commuter Zones leading to rural areas.

4.3 Merton’s Anomie Theory

Focuses on modes of adaptation to societal pressures:
  - Cultural structure focuses on societal goals.
  - Social structure deals with paths to achieve those goals.
  - Disjunction between means and goals causes anomie.
  - Adaption modes include innovation, retreatism, rebellion, conformity, and ritualism (adaptation modes detailed more in appendix).

4.4 Status Frustration and Delinquent Subcultures

Cohen’s Theory: Combining social disorganization and learned behavior perspectives.
Effects of socio-economic class dysfunction on individual behavior.
Responses to middle-class values from lower socio-economic classes leading to formation of unique delinquent subcultures.

4.5 Differential Opportunity and Crime

Cloward & Ohlin’s Opportunity Theory:
  - Crime is a response to blocked legitimate success opportunities.
  - Types of delinquent subcultures:
    - Criminal (striving for economic gains).
    - Conflict (violence seeking respect).
    - Retreatist (drug consumption).

4.6 Differential Association Theory

Sutherland’s Propositions:
  1. Criminal behavior is learned.
  2. Through interaction with others.
  3. The learning occurs in intimate groups.
  4. Involves techniques and specific motivations.
  5. Learning varies in intensity.
  6. A person becomes delinquent when reasons to disobey exceed reasons to obey.
  7. Direction of motives comes from definitions of legal codes.
  8. Differences in learning mechanisms similar to other behavior.
  9. Criminal behavior is not simply an expression of needs and values.

5. Main Theories: Cultural Conflict and Crime

Cultural Conflict Thesis (Sellin):
- Key to understanding crime is the concept of conduct norms regulating group behavior.
- Breaking these norms can cause confusion when individuals belong to multiple groups with conflicting rules.
Types of Cultural Conflict:
- Primary: Conflict stemming from different cultures.
- Secondary: Conflict from smaller cultures within a larger one.
Conflict Criminology: Divided into categories focusing on group/cultural conflict and lower-class conflict.

5.1 Lower Class Culture Conflict

Walter Miller’s Elements: Outlined central elements of a lower-working class culture as a source of delinquency.
Focal Concerns of different classes highlight unique values shaping behavior.

5.2 Radical Conflict and Crime

Categories of Conflicts: Based on socioeconomic factors.
Class conflict arises particularly from the means control of production.
Awareness among the exploited class leading to potential resistance against the ruling class.

6. Neutralisation-Drift Theories

Neutralisation Techniques: Help individuals disengage from delinquent acts; youth can drift between compliance and deviation.
Walter Reckless’s Containment Theory:
  - Conceptualizes delinquency as the outcome of internal and external control interplay.
  - Internal Containment: Self-direction, positive self-concept, social goal orientation.
  - External Containment: Societal mechanisms to maintain acceptable behavior.
  - Crime Involvement Correlation:
    - Strong inner and outer containment: No crime.
    - Strong inner, weak outer: Low risk of crime.
    - Weak inner, strong outer: Moderate crime risk.
    - Weak inner and outer: High crime likelihood.

7. Theory Integration: Towards a Multi-Dimensional Approach

Overview: South African societal disorganization reflects widespread rejection of norms and rules.
Urban vs. Rural Differences: Notable disparities in lifestyles and crime rates.
Success Emphasis in Capitalism: Drives inequality and frustration leading to social conflict and violence.
Cultural Aspects: High recorded crime and divorce rates in South Africa emphasize social instability.