Midterm review

Review for AP2 Lab Practical

Endocrine System Overview

  • Endocrine Glands or Tissues

    • Pineal gland

    • Hypothalamus

    • Pituitary gland

    • Thyroid gland

    • Thymus

    • Adrenal glands

    • Pancreas

    • Trachea

    • Ovary (female)

    • Testis (male)

    • Parathyroid glands

Hormones and General Functions

Pituitary Gland

  • Anterior lobe

    • Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)

    • Function: Stimulates growth and secretion of thyroid hormone from the thyroid gland.

    • Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

    • Function: Promotes growth and secretion of glucocorticoids from the adrenal cortex.

    • Prolactin (PRL)

    • Function: Stimulates synthesis of milk in females; increases sensitivity of LH in males.

    • Growth hormone (GH)

    • Function: Promotes mitosis, differentiation, and growth of various tissues, especially muscle, cartilage, bone, and fat.

    • Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

    • Function: Stimulates follicle growth and secretion of estrogen in ovaries; sperm production in testes.

    • Luteinizing hormone (LH)

    • Function: Triggers ovulation and maintains corpus luteum in ovaries; promotes testosterone secretion in testes.

  • Posterior lobe

    • Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

    • Function: Promotes water retention by the kidneys to help prevent dehydration.

    • Oxytocin (OT)

    • Function: Influences feelings of sexual satisfaction and emotional bonding; stimulates labor contractions; aids in milk ejection during lactation.

Thyroid Gland

  • Follicle cells

    • Thyroid hormone (T3 and T4)

    • Function: Increases metabolic rate; accelerates breakdown of food for energy; enhances alertness.

  • C (parafollicular) cells

    • Calcitonin

    • Function: Responds to high blood calcium levels by stimulating osteoblast activity to deposit calcium and form bone.

Parathyroid Gland

  • Chief cells

    • Parathyroid hormone (PTH)

    • Function: Responds to low blood calcium levels by stimulating osteoclast activity to release calcium from bone.

Adrenal Glands

  • Adrenal Cortex

    • Zona glomerulosa: Secretes Mineralocorticoids (Aldosterone)

    • Function: Promotes sodium retention in body fluids and excretion of potassium in urine.

    • Zona fasciculata: Secretes Glucocorticoids (Cortisol)

    • Function: Facilitates fat and protein breakdown; synthesizes glucose from non-carbohydrates (gluconeogenesis); helps body adapt to stress; exhibits anti-inflammatory effects.

    • Zona reticularis: Produces Sex steroids (Androgens and Estrogens)

    • Function: Responsible for development of secondary sexual characteristics (like pubic and axillary hair).

  • Adrenal Medulla

    • Chromaffin cells

    • Produce Epinephrine and Norepinephrine (NE)

      • Function: Increase alertness, mobilize energy fuels, raise heart rate, respiratory rate, and metabolic rate.

Pancreas

  • Alpha cells

    • Glucagon

    • Function: Raises blood glucose by promoting breakdown of glycogen in the liver; aids in amino acid absorption for gluconeogenesis; promotes fat breakdown.

  • Beta cells

    • Insulin

    • Function: Lowers blood glucose levels; facilitates absorption of glucose, fatty acids, and amino acids by cells for use, storage, or synthesis.

  • Delta cells

    • Somatostatin

    • Function: Inhibits stomach acid secretion.

Gonads
Ovaries

  • Granulosa cells of follicle

    • Estrogen

    • Function: Promotes development and growth of reproductive organs; regulates menstrual cycle and pregnancy; prepares mammary glands for lactation.

  • Corpus luteum

    • Progesterone

    • Function: Regulates menstrual cycle and pregnancy; prepares mammary glands for lactation.

Testes

  • Interstitial cells

    • Testosterone

    • Function: Drives development and growth of reproductive organs; stimulates growth of skeleton and muscle; supports sperm production; enhances libido.

Blood Components Overview

White Blood Cells (WBCs)

  • Neutrophils

    • Characteristics: Fine light-purple granules, single to five lobes in nucleus; immature forms have single C-shaped nucleus; mature forms (segs) have a lobed nucleus; also called polymorphonuclear leukocytes.

  • Eosinophils

    • Characteristics: Coarse reddish granules; usually bilobed nucleus.

  • Basophils

    • Characteristics: Coarse deep blue to black granules; nucleus often obscured by granules.

  • Lymphocytes

    • Characteristics: Slightly larger than RBCs; thin rim of clear cytoplasm; nearly round nucleus that fills most of the cell.

  • Monocytes

    • Characteristics: Largest WBC; cytoplasm is almost clear; nucleus can be round, kidney-shaped, oval, or lobed.

  • Platelets

    • Characteristics: Cell fragments; present as single or in small clusters.

  • Erythrocytes (RBCs)

    • Characteristics: Lack a nucleus (in mature form); appear as biconcave discs with thin centers resembling a hollow structure.

Functions of Blood Components

  • Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes)

    • Function: Contains hemoglobin (Hb) for the transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide.

  • White Blood Cells (Leukocytes)

    • Function: Immune response; destroy pathogenic microorganisms and parasites, remove worn-out cells, and provide immunity.

    • Granulocytes

    1. Neutrophil: Phagocytizes bacteria.

    2. Eosinophil: Destroys parasites; controls inflammation and allergic reactions.

    3. Basophil: Releases heparin (an anticoagulant) and histamine (a vasodilator).

    • Agranulocytes

    1. Monocyte: Engulfs dead or dying cells and microorganisms.

    2. Lymphocyte: Provides immunity; produces antibodies; destroys foreign and infected cells.

  • Platelet (Thrombocyte)

    • Function: Helps control blood loss from injured blood vessels; essential for blood clotting.

Differential White Blood Cell Count Values

Cell Type

Normal Value (percent)

Elevated Levels May Indicate

Neutrophil

54–62

Bacterial infections, stress

Lymphocyte

25–33

Mononucleosis, whooping cough, viral infections

Monocyte

3–9

Malaria, tuberculosis, fungal infections

Eosinophil

1–3

Allergic reactions, autoimmune diseases, parasitic worms

Basophil

<1

Cancers, chickenpox, hypothyroidism

Blood Typing Overview

Blood Types and Characteristics

  • Type A Blood

    • RBC Antigens (Agglutinogens): A

    • Plasma Antibodies (Agglutinins): Anti-B

    • Preferred Donor Type: A

    • Permissible Donor Type: O

    • Incompatible Donor: B, AB

  • Type B Blood

    • RBC Antigens: B

    • Plasma Antibodies: Anti-A

    • Preferred Donor Type: B

    • Permissible Donor Type: O

    • Incompatible Donor: A, AB

  • Type AB Blood (Universal Recipient)

    • RBC Antigens: A and B

    • Plasma Antibodies: None

    • Preferred Donor Type: AB, A, B, O

    • Permissible Donor Type: None

    • Incompatible Donor: Not applicable

  • Type O Blood (Universal Donor)

    • RBC Antigens: Neither A nor B

    • Plasma Antibodies: Both anti-A and anti-B

    • Preferred Donor Type: O

    • Permissible Donor Type: A, B, AB

    • Incompatible Donor: Not applicable

Agglutination Phenomenon

  • Blood typing tests demonstrate agglutination patterns based on the presence of specific antigens and antibodies which helps in identifying blood types and potential transfusion reactions.

Cardiovascular System Overview

Heart Anatomy

  • Major Components

    • Chambers: Left Atrium, Left Ventricle, Right Atrium, Right Ventricle

    • Vessels: Superior Vena Cava, Inferior Vena Cava, Aorta, Pulmonary Arteries, Pulmonary Veins

    • Valves: Tricuspid Valve, Aortic Valve, Mitral Valve, Pulmonary Valve

    • Septum: Interatrial Septum, Interventricular Septum

    • Heart Valves: Chordae Tendineae, Papillary Muscle, Trabeculae Carneae

Electrical Conduction System of the Heart

  • Key Components

    • Sinoatrial node (SA node): Primary pacemaker that initiates heartbeats.

    • Atrioventricular node (AV node): Receives impulses from the SA node and conducts them to the ventricles.

    • AV bundle (Bundle of His): Conducts impulses from the AV node to the right and left bundle branches.

    • Bundles branches: Distributes the impulse through the ventricles.

    • Purkinje fibers: Spread the impulse throughout the ventricular myocardium.

Heart Cycle and Electrical Activity

  • Key Phases

    • P Wave: Atrial depolarization; shows the electrical activity that leads to atrial contraction.

    • QRS Complex: Ventricular depolarization; shows the electrical impulse that leads to ventricular contraction.

    • T Wave: Ventricular repolarization; shows the recovery phase of the ventricles.

    • Intervals and Segments

    • P-R Interval: Time from atrial depolarization to ventricular depolarization.

    • Q-T Interval: Time of ventricular depolarization and repolarization.

Blood Vessels Overview

  • Major Arteries

    • External Carotid Artery

    • Internal Carotid Artery

    • Common Carotid Artery

    • Subclavian Artery

    • Brachiocephalic Trunk

  • Major Veins

    • External Jugular Vein

    • Internal Jugular Vein

    • Subclavian Vein

    • Brachiocephalic Vein

  • Peripheral Circulation

    • Axillary Artery, Brachial Artery, Radial and Ulnar Arteries

    • Axillary Vein, Brachial Vein, Radial and Ulnar Veins

Abdominal and Pelvic Circulation

  • Major Arterieswithin the Celiac Trunk**

    • Left Gastric Artery

    • Common Hepatic Artery

    • Right Renal Artery

    • Aortic Structures: Right Common Iliac Artery, Right External Iliac Artery

  • Major Veins of the Hepatic Portal System

    • Hepatic Portal Vein

    • Splenic Vein

    • Inferior Mesenteric Vein

    • Superior Mesenteric Vein

Summary Notes

  • Review all mentioned organs, glands, cell types, and their specific functions.

  • Focus on the connections between endocrine functions and blood composition.

  • Understand the systemic circulation including major arteries and veins, ensuring familiarity with blood flow pathways.

  • Exam familiarity with blood typing and its importance during transfusion procedures.