past & present use and importance of English globally

English and the Naming of Early Industrial Inventions

• Historical Context of the Industrial Revolution:

  • During the Industrial Revolution, English served as the dominant language in Britain.

  • In the early $18^{th}$ century, a significant transition occurred as British and American societies shifted from rural-based industries to industrialized societies.

  • This shift profoundly impacted the evolution of the English language, including its terminology and the common patterns of speech.

• The Necessity of Invention in Language:

  • New technology required the invention of new terms to describe and accommodate advancements.

  • Common methods for naming these inventions included naming them after the inventor or assigning a name of the inventor's choosing. (eponyms)

  • Everyday Examples of Industrial Origins:

    • "Train"

    • "Revolver"

    • "Pulley"

    • "Telegraph"

• The $1851$ Great Exhibition:

  • Held at The Crystal Palace in London, this exhibition showcased many new inventions and their associated terminology.

  • Specific terms introduced or highlighted during this period include:

    • "Self-acting mill"

    • "Power loom"

    • "Steam press"

Standardization and the Convergence of Language

• Regulation of Technical Language:

  • Inventions and trade necessitated a standardization of spelling to prevent miscommunication regarding technicalities (Courtney, $2009$).

  • The Prediction of Language Divergence:

    • According to Mastin ($2011$), at the end of the $19^{th}$ century, Henry Sweet predicted that America, Australia, and England would be speaking "mutually unintelligible languages" within one hundred years.

  • The Convergence Factor:

    • The predicted divergence failed to occur because of the development of instantaneous communication, which forced a convergence of the English language instead.

• Case Study: The Word "Hello":

  • David Crystal ($2012$) identifies "hello" as a primary example of communication influencing language.

  • Originally street slang used in the early $19^{th}$ century as an informal greeting.

  • Thomas Edison, in $1877$, shouted the word into the mouthpiece of his device upon discovering a way to record sound.

  • This led to "hello" becoming the standard greeting for telephone conversations and remains the most common greeting in the English-speaking world today.

Linguistic Evolution: Word Functions and Portmanteaus

• The Linguistic Revolution:

  • New words and meanings appeared in "flurries" at every stage of the industrial revolution.

  • Modern linguistic changes are shared rapidly via online platforms.

• Evolution of Word Functions:

  • Verbalization (Verbs from Nouns):

    • "Google" became the verb "to Google" (to search on the engine).

    • "Sequence" became the verb "to sequence" (e.g., "to sequence a human genome").

  • Nominalization (Nouns from Verbs):

    • Creating a noun from a verb, such as identifying a mistake in an office as a "fail."

• Portmanteau Words:

  • Portmanteaus combine aspects of separate words to create new, related terms to reflect cultural and societal shifts.

  • Established Examples: Motel, brunch, podcast, smog.

  • Recent Additions: Gastropub, flexitarian, dramedy, phablet.

  • Marketing Influence: Famous brands like "Groupon" and "Pinterest" utilize these relatable structures.

• Future Predictions and Scientific Influence:

  • The future of English may involve further hybridization or clusters of compound words.

  • Reference to the first Industrial Revolution shows scientists utilized Latin and Greek roots for terms such as:

    • $Electron$

    • $Nucleus$

    • $Vaccine$

• Regional Contributions to Global English:

  • Local words occasionally enter the global dictionary.

  • Example: "Spruik" (Australian informal for a promotional speech or rant) entered the Oxford English Dictionary recently.

English and Exploration, Discovery, and Settlement

• Expansion of the British Empire:

  • English became global through exploration, trade, and settlement in places such as the United States, Australia, and India.

  • The language was disseminated via government structures, education systems, and commercial trade.

• Political and Economic Drivers:

  • Exploration was tied to scientific advancement and trade, allowing English-speaking merchants to communicate across continents.

  • Britain's status as a leading global power during the Industrial Revolution, followed by the rise of the United States as a world superpower, solidified the language's influence.

• Global Impact and Concerns:

  • Cultural Threat: Some argue English dominance threatens smaller local languages and cultures, particularly among younger generations. → being a killer language

  • Global Connection: Others view English as a tool for international connection and cultural exchange.

  • Current uses include business, science, travel, and the internet.

English and the Origin and Development of Laws

• The Foundation of English Common Law:

  • The system developed in England following the Norman Conquest of $1066$.

  • Distinction: Unlike Civil Law (based on Roman law), Common Law relies on precedent ($Stare decisis$ ) and judicial decisions.

• Historical Documentation:

  • Foundational texts like the Magna Carta ($1215$) were written in Latin and Norman French, but their principles were absorbed into English legal tradition.

  • Statute of Pleading ($1362$): Formalized the shift of court language from French and Latin to English, though Latin persisted in records for centuries.

• Global Exportation of Legal Systems:

  • The British Empire exported Common Law to the United States, Canada, Australia, India, Nigeria, Singapore, and Hong Kong.

  • Legal frameworks for contracts, torts, property, and criminal law were argued and recorded in English.

• Core Legal Terminology (Origins in English):

  • Tort, contract, injunction, precedent, equity, trust, estoppel, habeas corpus.

• International Law and Arbitration in the Present:

  • Dominance: While UN documents exist in Arabic, Chinese, French, Russian, and Spanish, English is the primary working language for treaties and rulings (ICJ, ICC).

  • Lex Mercatoria (Merchant Law): Modern commercial contracts between different countries often default to English or New York law.

  • International Arbitration: Conducted almost exclusively in English in major centers like London, New York, Singapore, Hong Kong, and Geneva.

  • Rules: Key arbitration rules (ICC, UNCITRAL, LCIA) are in English.

  • Legal Education: Top institutions (Harvard, Yale, Oxford, Cambridge) teach in English; a degree from these acts as a "global passport."

English and the Establishment of Financial Institutions

• Birth of Modern Banking:

  • The Bank of England ($1694$): Established to fund the English government; became the model for central banks globally.

  • Pre-eminent Financial Centers: The City of London, Barings Bank, and Lloyds of London (insurance) established English as the operational standard.

• Core Banking Concepts:

  • Bank, account, check, overdraft, interest, loan, bond, share, stock, dividend, equity, capital.

• Global Standards and Regulation:

  • Basel Accords (I, II, III): Written in English by the Basel Committee on Banking Supervision regarding capital adequacy and liquidity risk.

  • US Legislation with Global Reach: Sarbanes-Oxley Act and Dodd-Frank Act (filings for foreign companies listed on US exchanges must be in English).

  • IFRS (International Financial Reporting Standards): Governing global financial performance reporting.

• Institutional Language:

  • Bylaws, articles of association, and board minutes of international banks are drafted in English.

  • Initial Public Offerings (IPOs): Prospectuses for major exchanges (NYSE, NASDAQ, LSE, HKEX, SGX) are English-based.

• FinTech Vocabulary:

  • Blockchain, cryptocurrency, DeFi (Decentralized Finance), API, crowdfunding, robo-advisor, peer-to-peer lending.

Global Financial Transactions and Trading

• Systems Evolution:

  • The first networks were built by British companies like Reuter's and Cable & Wireless.

  • The Bretton Woods System ($1944$): Created the IMF and World Bank; adopted English as the primary language and pegged the US dollar to gold.

• Operational Infrastructure:

  • SWIFT (Society for Worldwide Interbank Financial Telecommunication): Handles over $40$ million messages per day across $11,000+$ institutions. Standard instructions (e.g., "MT103" for customer transfers) are in English.

  • Market Data Terminals: Bloomberg and Reuters (Refinitiv Eikon) utilize English interfaces and news analytics.

  • ISDA Master Agreement: The critical English legal framework for trading over-the-counter derivatives like swaps, futures, and CDOs.

• Trading and Commodities:

  • FX Quotations: Pairs like EUR/USD, GBP/JPY, USD/JPY.

  • Pricing: Oil (Brent Crude, WTI) and gold (XAU/USD) are priced in US dollars using English terms.

English in Music, Film, and the Media

• The Global Music Industry:

  • English is the dominant language for pop, hip hop, and rock.

  • Global Strategy: Artists from non-English countries release English versions or lyrics to gain success (e.g., South Korean K-pop groups).

• The Film Industry Influence:

  • Hollywood established English as a global cinematic standard in the $20^{th}$ century.

  • Subtitles and dubbing make English familiar globally; streaming services promote learning the language to understand humor and cultural nuances directly.

• Media and Internet Culture:

  • Broadcasters: BBC, CNN, and The New York Times.

  • Social Media: Memes, podcasts, and YouTube content are overwhelmingly English-produced, providing greater information access to English speakers.

  • Homogenisation Risk: Critics fear English dominance reduces the visibility of local traditions and minority languages.

English in Communication Systems

• Telephones:

  • Historically required a common language for operators connecting international calls.

  • Currently used for customer service centers, business calls, and mobile software.

• Air Traffic Control (ATC):

  • Adopted after World War II as international travel expanded.

  • The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) requires English proficiency for all international flights.

  • Importance: Safety through reduced misunderstanding and emergency clarity.

• Shipping and Maritime:

  • English became the standard during the expansion of sea trade and the British Empire.

  • Used today for navigation, weather warnings, and port communication to prevent accidents.

• Rescue and Emergency Services:

  • English is essential for international disaster response, medical rescue, and humanitarian aid coordination.

  • Facilitates cooperation between multinational teams in life-threatening situations.

English and the Internet - J Bawden

• Technological Origins:

  • Early networks like ARPANET and coding standards like ASCII were developed in English-speaking countries.

• Statistical Dominance:

  • Approximately $50\%$ of internet content is in English.

  • Only about $25\%$ of actual internet users speak English, yet it remains the global lingua franca for social media, business, and education.

• Digital Implication:

  • The language provides global access but creates an inherent disadvantage for non-English speakers and minimizes the online presence of smaller languages.