AP Human Geo - Comprehensive Notes

Unit 1: Thinking Geographically

Map Types

  • Reference Map:
    • Displays boundaries, names, and identifiers of geographic areas.
    • Includes major cultural and physical features.
    • Example: Map of Louisville or the world.
  • Thematic Map:
    • Emphasizes a particular theme or topic.
    • Primary focus of Human Geography.
  • Cartogram:
    • Distorts land area to represent changes in value.
    • The greater the value, the larger the land area, and vice versa.
    • Example: Cartogram of total population showing China and India with larger land areas.
  • Choropleth Map:
    • Uses different shades to represent variations in values.
    • Darker shades typically indicate higher or denser values.
  • Dot Map:
    • Uses dots to represent different values.
    • More dots indicate a greater value.
    • Example: Each dot represents 200 farms.
  • Graduated Symbol Map:
    • Uses symbols to represent certain values.
    • Larger symbols indicate higher values.
    • Example: Literacy rate in the U.S., where larger symbols represent higher literacy rates.
  • Isoline Map:
    • Connects different places that share a common value with lines.

Maps and Spatial Patterns

  • Relative Space:

    • Space created and defined by human interactions with the environment.
    • Qualitative (descriptive) measure.
    • Example: Location described as "near the Washington Monument."
    • Example: Distance as "30 minutes South", direction as "left, right, front, etc."

  • Absolute Space:

    • Space with precisely measured dimensions.
    • Quantitative (numerical) measure.
    • Example: Location defined by longitude and latitude (e.g., 30°N30°N, 25°W25°W).
    • Example: Distance in miles or kilometers, direction using a compass (north, south, east, west).

  • Spatial Patterns Represented on Maps:

    • Distance and Direction (absolute and relative).
    • Uniform: Evenly spaced.
    • Clustering/Clumped: Grouped or bunched together.
    • Dispersal/Scattered: Distributed over a wide area.
    • Elevation: Levels of height or depth on Earth’s surface.
    • Agglomeration: Grouped together purposely.
    • Sinuous: Wavy configuration.
    • Random: No specific pattern.
    • Linear: Shown in a line configuration.

Map Projections

  • Map Projection: Transformation of latitudes and longitudes from a sphere (Earth) to a flat surface (map).

  • All map projections distort the surface (distance, direction, area, or scale) in some way.

  • Mercator Projection:

    • Type: Conformal.
    • Creator: Gerardus Mercator (1569).
    • Benefits: Preserves 90° angles and straight lines of longitude and latitude; shows true direction.
    • Purpose: Best for nautical use to help ship captains.
    • Distortion: Poles appear much larger than they are (areas become larger with latitude).

  • Robinson Projection:

    • Type: Compromise.
    • Creator: Arthur Robinson (1963).
    • Benefits: Not much distortion of continents (size is preserved); superior alternative to Mercator.
    • Purpose: Commonly used and accurate projection, used in schools and atlases.
    • Distortion: Distorts poles.

  • Peters Projection:

    • Type: Equal-Area.
    • Creator: Arno Peters (1967).
    • Benefits: Shows accurate shapes and sizes (area) of landmasses.
    • Purpose: Used in world maps.
    • Distortion: Distorts oceans and land size.

  • Polar Projection:

    • Type: Azimuthal Equidistant.
    • Creator: Guillaume Postel (1581).
    • Benefits: Distances from the center (poles) are preserved.
    • Purpose: Used by airline pilots to navigate best routes around the Earth and as an emblem on the United Nations flag.
    • Distortion: Distorts parallels of latitude.

  • Conformal Map Projection:

    • Preserves the shape of features on the map.
    • May greatly distort the size of features.

Geospatial Technologies

  • Geographic Information System (GIS):
    • System designed to collect, store, analyze, and present georeferenced data.
    • Data tied to locations on Earth.
    • Built around spatial and attribute information.
    • Criticized for being too expensive, creating a power divide, and promoting a strongly Western view of the world.
    • Used in all fields of study to make maps, perform analysis, share information, and solve problems.
      • Examples: Predicting fish yield in Sub-Saharan Africa, tracking deforestation in Bolivia, selecting sites for new schools in Jamaica.
  • Remote Sensing:
    • Gathers information on Earth using sensors on aircrafts and satellites without physical contact.
    • Applications in natural resource management, hazard assessment, and coastal and ocean applications.
  • Satellite Navigational Systems:
    • System of satellites that provide geospatial positioning.
    • Allows electronic receivers (e.g., phone) to determine their location with precision.
      • Examples: Russia’s GLONASS, China’s BeiDou, United States’ GPS.
    • Uses lines of latitude and longitude to allow users to find their exact location, velocity, time, and weather conditions.

Observations of Spatial Information

  • Field Observations:
    • Observing people in absolute space and situations.
    • Spatial information gained: Architecture, land use, settlement patterns, climate effects.
  • Media Reports:
    • Communication from media companies about human interactions.
    • Spatial information gained: Land use, agricultural patterns, economic impacts.
  • Travel Narratives:
    • Firsthand accounts from people visiting a place.
    • Spatial information gained: Settlement patterns, transportation, land use, architecture.
  • Policy Documents:
    • Official papers that define the rules, guidelines, and regulations of a place.
    • Spatial information gained: Land use, settlement patterns, economic impacts.
  • Personal Interviews:
    • Someone explaining their observations or opinions.
    • Spatial information gained: Transportation, settlement patterns, economic impacts.
  • Landscape Analysis:
    • Study of how land is being used and of human environment interactions.
    • Spatial information gained: Land use, agricultural practices, architecture, climate effects.
  • Photographic Interpretation:
    • Studying of a photograph.
    • Spatial information gained: Agricultural practices, land use, settlement patterns, architecture, transportation.
      • Example: Urban vs. agricultural landscape comparison.
        • Urban landscapes indicate industry and service-based economies.
        • Agricultural landscapes indicate agricultural-based economies.
        • Architecture differs (skyscrapers vs. barns).
        • Population density varies.

The Power of Data

  • Geospatial Data:
    • Any data with a geographic aspect that refers to a position on the earth.
    • Processed and analyzed by geographical tools (Remote Sensing, GPS, and GIS).
    • Categorized as either vector or raster data.
  • Vector Data:
    • Uses points, lines, and polygons.
    • Represents spatial features like cities, roads, and streams.
  • Raster Data:
    • Made up of grid cells and pixels; each pixel has a value.
    • Shows elevation, satellite images, or paper maps.
  • Uses of Geospatial Data:
    • Businesses incorporate geospatial data into their analysis, reporting, and forecasting.
    • Governments use data from censuses to show demographics and to draw congressional and state legislative districts.
    • Governments also use geographical tools for satellite imagery.

Spatial Concepts

  • Absolute Space:
    • Area whose dimensions can be precisely measured.
    • Often compared to a container.
    • Formal cultural region is a good example.
  • Relative Space:
    • Created and defined by human interactions.
    • Can be represented by a network of linked nodes.
  • Absolute Location:
    • Fixed location, usually reckoned by latitude and longitude.
    • The absolute location of Louisville is 38.2527°N38.2527° N, 85.7585°W85.7585° W.
  • Relative Location:
    • Position of a place in respect to other places.
    • The relative location of Kentucky could be defined as north of Tennessee or south of Indiana.
  • Distance Decay:
    • Tapering off of a process, pattern, or event because of distance.
    • Varies based on activity.
  • Time-Space Compression:
    • Process of when advances in transportation and communication lessen the effect of distance.
    • A flight from Louisville to Los Angeles is roughly six hours, which is roughly the same time it takes to drive from Louisville to Atlanta.
  • Place:
    • Locality distinguished by specific physical and social characteristics.
    • Places can be identified by their absolute or relative location as well as their site and situation.
    • Contributes to the social, political, and economic functioning of our world.

Nature and Society

Theories of Human Environmental Interaction

  • Determinism:
    • Originated from the ancient Greeks and grew in prominence between the 19th and 20th centuries.
    • View that natural factors solely control the development of human qualities.
    • Basic Concept: How humans think, behave, and act is determined by the natural climate they are in.
    • Example: Tropical Climate initiates laziness/ relaxation
  • Criticisms of Determinism:
    • Cultures could say they are superior to others, based only on the climate that they live in.
    • Oversimplifies cause-and-effect relationships.
    • Similar climate settings have been proven not to produce the same cultures or behaviors.
  • Possibilism:
    • Developed in the early 20th century as an alternative to determinism.
    • View that people use their creativity to adapt, respond, and overcome environmental conditions.
    • Basic Concept: Humans have choices, and their decision-making is the main factor in determining their success.
    • Example: air conditioning can be used to make hot weather places more livable.
    • The natural environment is still a factor that develops human culture and can make success more or less challenging.

Scale of Analysis

*Scale: the relationship of the size of a map to the amount of area it represents on the earth.

  • Large scale vs. small scale
    • Large scale: shows less area in greater detail
    • Small scale: shows larger area in less detail
      Scale of analysis: the level at which the data is displayed.
    • Global
      • Shows the world at one level of data
      • This level of analysis is usually not that useful
    • Regional
      • Shows data by continents or world regions
    • National
      • Shows data for one or more countries
    • Local
      • Shows subnational data

Regional Analysis

  • Formal Region:
    • Region described by having unifying cultural or physical characteristics.
    • Traits that can characterize a formal region: Religion, language, political boundaries, ethnicity.
    • Examples: Dairy Belt, a country such as India.
    • Key Question: What is the shared characteristic(s)?
  • Functional Region:
    • Region defined by a political, social, or economic characteristic. The area must also have a center of activity (a node).
    • Examples: TARC, LMPD’s service in Jefferson County.
    • Key Questions: What is the activity? What is the extent of influence of the node?
  • Perceptual Region (Vernacular Region):
    • Region characterized by a population's sense of identity and attraction towards an area and tends to have less defined boundaries.
    • Boundaries are subject to individual interpretation.
    • Examples: The American South.
    • Everyone knows what it means to be Southern, but the responses will vary based on personal experiences/perceptions

3 Basic Dispersion Patterns

(J) Uniform - equally-spaced apart
(] Random - no predictable pattern
(] Clumped - bunched in groups
Climate: extreme areas have a low pop density
ex. Europe's temperate climate attracts many people
Water Bodies: river valleys may also promote human settlements due to resources
ex. Egypt - 95% of the population lives within 5 miles of the Nile River.
Landforms: rugged terrain restricts the concentration of population in any area
ex. Himilayan Mts. have a low pop. density

population distribution influencing

FACTORS
Politics: stable/fair governments have a high pop. density
ex. Sudan has an unstable government and a low pop density
Economy: areas w/ developed markets and skilled workers bring in high populations
ex. India has a huge economy and a high pop. density
Culture: cultural practices and ethnic relationships can influence settlement
History: ancient settlement locations and colonialism have impacted pop. distribution.
ex. Nigeria, the US, and India, all former colonies, have high pop. densities
pattern of where the ppl live population density • population distribution ./ ½

of ppl per unit of land Major Population Clusters

(J) East Asia
(] South Asia
(] Southeast Asia
(] Nigeria
© Europe
Cl Northeastern United States

Population Density

  • Population density is the pressure a population exerts on the land.
  • ARITHMETIC DENSITY: Number of people living in a given unit of land
    • Does not take into account that some land may be unusable (not arable)
    • Example: Egypt has an arithmetic density of 7 people per sq. km, but much of the land isn't really usable so people are concentrated in the Nile Delta are (density there of 3,900 per sq km!
      ARITHMETIC DENSITY=total populationtotal land area{\text{ARITHMETIC DENSITY} = \frac{\text{total population}}{\text{total land area}}}
  • PHYSIOLOGICAL DENSITY: Number of people per unit of arable land
    • Arable land: land that can be used for agriculture
    • Takes into account that some land might be inhospitable
    • Gives us insight into the actual pressure on land
      PHYSIOLOGICAL DENSITY=total populationtotal arable land{\text{PHYSIOLOGICAL DENSITY} = \frac{\text{total population}}{\text{total arable land}}}
  • AGRICULTURAL DENSITY: # of farmers per unit of arable land, will be lower in areas where there is more commercial ag.

Consequences of Population Distribution

  • Population distribution is the way that people are clustered across the globe
  • Population is mainly clustered in cities
  • 55%55\% of the world’s population now lives in urban areas
    High Rural-Urban Migration Leads To:
    Social and Economic Consequences:
    Ageing population in rural areas as young people go to cities for jobs leads to high age-dependency ratio
    Especially in LDCs, lack of housing compared to rate of migration leads to the creation of slums and shantytowns
    Diseases are easily spread in urban areas
    Environmental Consequences:
    Large population density puts a strain on environmental resources in the area
    Carrying Capacity is the largest population an area can support
    High concentration of manufacturing plants and other buildings leads to large amounts of pollution and water contamination

Population pyramids

Definition: a bar graph that shows the age and gender composition of a population; helps us see population change in a country
The pyramid is divided by gender- females on the right, males on the left
Shows population or population percentage.
Scale can change
Age cohorts: usually each a five-year age span, up to 100 (males and females are both represented from these groups)
Scale
Country/ region at the top
City scale •
The scale of the pyramid can change what it looks like
The U.S. and CA have very similar pop. pyramids
San Francisco's pop. Pyramid is different from the other two

Population Dynamics

Looks at how the population of a region, a counter or even the world changes.
*3 factors contribute to population growth and decline
Fertility is measured using Crude Birth Rate (CBR).
*Fertility
*Crude Birth Rate
*is the number of births per 1000 people per year
*Migration
*the movement of people to a new area.
*Mortality is measured using Crude Death Rate (CDR).
*Crude Death Rate
*is the number of deaths per 1000 people per year
*Migration- the movement of people to a new area. Doesn’t change the total number of people on the planet but does change the people living in a specific area.
*Mortality is measured using Crude Death Rate(CDR). Crude Death Rate- is the number of deaths per 1000 people per year.
2 factors increase the population of a country
2 factors decrease the population of a country
*Births
*Infant Mortality Rate: number of deaths under 1 year per 1000 people.
*Rate of natural increase(RNI)- the percentage of population growth in an area excluding migration
RNI=CBR - CDR10{\text{RNI} = \frac{\text{CBR - CDR}}{10}}
*The RNI is High in LDCs due to their CBR being high and Low in MDCs due to their CDR being high and CBR being low
Doubling time- amount of time it will take for a population to double in size.
Doubling time=71RNI\text{Doubling time} = \frac{71}{\text{RNI}}
Cultural, Political, and Economic factors influencing population dynamics
The population dynamics of any country is based on their position in the Demographic Transition Model. Countries in the Second Stage tend to be more agriculture focused with a less educated workforce, leading to a high TFR and somewhat low CDR. Countries in the 4-5th stage tend to be well developed and educated leading to a low TFR and high CDR because of the ageing population.

Demographic Transition Model (DTM)

  • Demographic Transition Model-shows population change over time.

    • Based off population trends in Europe
    • Observed by Warren Thompson
    • Relates changes in RNI to social change as a result of urbanization and industrialization
    • Describes a shift from high birth and death rates to low birth and death rates over time

  • Stage 1

    • High stiationary Birth Rate:High because….. Natural increase or decrease: children needed for farming stable or very slow increase children die at an early age no family planning Death Rate:High: because disease famine poor medical knowledge *contagious diseases Example Countries:
      • Brazil
      • India
      • partial picture of population change
      • not directly applicable to developing countries
        --the times are based on the Western European experience.

  • Stage 2

    • Early expnding Ec::1750-1880i2 Birth Rate:High because Natural increase or decrease: children needed for farming ve,y rapid increase children die at an early age no family planning Death Rate:Falls Rapidly because.. Example Countries:
      • Egypt
      • Kenya
      • Ethopia

  • Stage 3

    • Late Expnding
      Ec::1880-1970:
      Birth Rate:Falling because… Natural increase or decrease:
      improved medical care increases moderately
      improved diet industrialized
      Death Rate:Falls more slowly because

      • but improvements in