Alexander Berkman's Attempt on Henry Clay Frick (1892)
On July 23, 1892, anarchist Alexander Berkman attempted to assassinate Henry Clay Frick, manager of Carnegie Steel Company.
Aimed to protest against the exploitative capitalist system and avenge the massacre of striking steel workers by Pinkerton guards.
Berkman served 14 years in Pennsylvania’s Western State Penitentiary.
In 1912, published Prison Memoirs of an Anarchist detailing his experiences in prison.
Oscar Wilde's Influence on Prison Literature
Berkman opened his memoir with a passage from Oscar Wilde.
Wilde's work became a common reference point for many discussing prison life in the early 20th century.
Many individuals (prisoners, wardens, chaplains, doctors, journalists) referenced Wilde to discuss prison cruelties.
Thelma Roberts’ book title Red Hell and Chester Himes' short story To What Red Hell were inspired by Wilde, indicating the lasting impact of his writing.
References to Sexual Practices in Prison
Many prison writers invoked Wilde’s work to hint at underlying issues of sexuality within prison.
Wilde's poem The Ballad of Reading Gaol became particularly pertinent for discussions about sexual practices, highlighting the depravity that could flourish in prison systems.
Wilde wrote, "The vilest deeds, like poison weeds, bloom well in prison-air…"
Both Emma Goldman and Thomas Mott Osborne used Wilde's verses to comment on conditions in prisons, suggesting that prisons were built from “bricks of shame”.
The Emergence of the Concept of the Homosexual
Oscar Wilde’s trial for “gross indecency” in 1895 shifted public perception of homosexuality.
Literary critic Ed Cohen argued that Wilde’s case changed the Victorian sexual imagination, creating the archetype of the homosexual as deviant and criminal.
This perception reinforced the association of homosexuality with prison, solidifying a symbolic language around same-sex practices.
The Development of Sexology and Its Impact
The rise of sexology in the late 19th century contributed to the categorization of homosexuality as a distinct sexual type.
Karl Heinrich Ulrichs began theorizing about homosexuality in the 1860s, advocating for its perception as a natural anomaly rather than a vice.
Many sexologists (Havelock Ellis, Richard von Krafft-Ebing) expanded on these theories, recognizing a spectrum of sexual behaviors.
Prison Sexual Culture and Terminology
The early 20th century saw the emergence of a distinct prison sexual culture described by terms like punks (victims) and wolves (predators).
Wolves: Aggressive men who initiated sexual relationships.
Punks: Vulnerable younger inmates often pressured into sexual relationships.
This vernacular mimicked broader working-class language, reflecting shared cultural experiences.
Institutional Responses to Homosexuality in Prisons
Prisons in the early 20th century adopted varied approaches to handle homosexuality.
Institutional efforts included attempts to segregate known homosexuals and “perverts” from others, often reinforcing a culture of shame and ostracization.
Examples included forced identification (e.g., wearing specific symbols), physical punishments, and sterilization laws targeting homosexuals.
Societal Attitudes Towards Prison Dynamics
Overall, societal attitudes towards same-sex practices in prison were complex, often oscillating between condemnation and a sort of rough tolerance.
Some prisoners dismissed their past horror of homosexuality, reflecting an adaptation to the prison environment.
Progressive reformers redefined the potential for inmate sociability, which inadvertently led to increased sexual opportunities within the prison environment.
Conclusion
The evolution of perceptions around sexuality and homosexuality within prisons reflects larger societal changes and highlight the intricate interplay between culture, power, and eroticism in the prison setting.
Overall, early prison writers and sexologists alike grappled with the challenges of categorizing and understanding the sexual dynamics that arose in these confined spaces, exposing the multifaceted nature of human sexuality and identity in circumstances of coercion and oppression.