Lesson 14: Militaries and Police Force
MILITARIES
Military is a specialized institution, focused on tasks related to defense and security.
It has a professional leadership that is trained specifically to manage military affairs.
This leadership is separate from the rest of society, meaning military leaders do not typically get involved in everyday civilian matters.
The military also functions as a political institution of a very particular kind.
This means it has a unique role in politics, often influencing decisions related to national security, defense policies, and sometimes even shaping political power, but it does not directly engage in regular political activities like elections.
FACTORS DISTINGUISHING THE MILITARY FROM OTHER INSTITUTIONS
INTERNAL & EXTERNAL FACTORS SHAPING THE CHARACTER OF THE ARMED FORCES
ROLE OF MILITARY
Act as an emergency service during disasters
The military often provides assistance during natural disasters, offering support in rescue, relief, and rebuilding efforts.
Maintain order in states with severe political tension
In countries facing intense political instability, the military might be the only force strong enough to restore and maintain public order.
Support the regime when political legitimacy collapses
If a government loses its legitimacy, the military may intervene to protect the regime from rebellion, sometimes leading to military control or a coup.
POLICE FORCE
Lies at the heart of the coercive state
The police are a central part of the state’s authority, using force when necessary to maintain control and enforce laws.
Purpose is to maintain domestic order
The main role of the police is to ensure order within society, meaning they help create stable and predictable behaviors, particularly in ways that protect personal security.
Has a routine and everyday involvement in public life
The police are consistently involved in daily life, from responding to emergencies to patrolling neighborhoods and enforcing laws.
APPROACHES TO THE NATURE OF POLICING
LIBERAL PERSPECTIVE
The police are seen as an essentially neutral body whose main role is to maintain domestic order, ensuring safety and security for everyone without bias.
CONSERVATIVE PERSPECTIVE
The police are viewed as mechanisms of political control, emphasizing their role as enforcers who can manage social unrest and civil disorder, protecting established authority and stability.
RADICAL PERSPECTIVE
The police are seen as tools of oppression, serving the interests of the state rather than the people. In the Marxist view, they are seen as defenders of property and protectors of class interests, maintaining the power of the ruling class.
ROLE OF THE POLICE
CIVIL POLICING
The police enforce criminal law, ensuring that laws are followed and crimes are prevented or addressed.
COMMUNITY POLICING
Police build trust and cooperation with the public, encouraging positive relationships.
This is often based on the broken windows theory.
Broken Windows Theory: Suggests that if minor offenses (like a broken window) are not dealt with right away, it signals neglect in the area, leading to more serious crimes.
Active Policing
It is when officers are present and involved in communities. The idea is to prevent crime by addressing minor issues before they escalate.
Example: Japan has many police stations and engages in active policing
Broken Policing
It refers to areas where minor offenses are ignored, leading to more serious problems, which aligns with the three contrasting approaches to policing:
Liberal – neutral enforcement of law
Conservative – police as control mechanisms
Radical – police as tools of oppression
POLITICAL POLICING
Police can be used as a political instrument to enforce or protect political power.
Institutional Racism – it refers to racism that is built into the culture or procedures of an organization, influencing how people are treated, distinct from individual prejudice.
In political contexts, political bias may arise, where politicians influence policing to serve their interests.
EXAMPLE: Extrajudicial killings (EJK) may occur when due process is ignored, and people are killed without trial or proper legal procedure, often with political motivations.
POLICE STATE
A police state is a system where the government relies on arbitrary and indiscriminate policing, often violating civil liberties and freedoms.
In a police state, the police operate outside legal frameworks, meaning they do not follow the laws or legal procedures that normally govern their actions.
The police are not accountable to the courts or the public, meaning they are free to act without oversight or consequences.
Totalitarian Features
A police state often has totalitarian characteristics, where the government curtails civil liberties, creating an environment of fear and oppression.
Political control is maintained through fear, as the police enforce the will of those in power.
In extreme cases, the police act as private armies for the ruling elites, serving their interests rather than the public’s.
INTERNATIONAL SECURITY
International Security refers to the conditions that ensure the mutual survival and safety of states.
It involves measures to prevent or punish aggression within law-bounded international borders, meaning countries are expected to respect international laws and boundaries.
Safeguarding the State: This means protecting the country from external threats, such as military invasions, terrorism, or other hostile actions from foreign entities.
Protecting Citizens: It also includes ensuring the safety and well-being of the people living in the state, by defending against any threats that could harm them.
ASPECTS OF INTERNATIONAL SECURITY IN INTERNATIONAL RELATIONSHIP (IR)
Sovereignty and Anarchy
The principle of state sovereignty allows states to have full control over their rights and territory, creating order and stability within national borders.
However, this often leads to anarchy in international relations because there is no higher authority to manage conflicts between states.
International security can be seen as the role of states acting as "police" over foreign threats, but diplomacy plays a crucial role in preventing conflicts and maintaining peace.
Challenges
States face evolving threats like transnational terrorism, nuclear proliferation, and other new forms of conflict that require states to adapt and cooperate internationally to address these challenges, often caused by foreign groups acting against nation-states.
Theoretical Debates
There are ongoing debates over how best to secure the security of states, with varying opinions on the effectiveness of military, diplomatic, and cooperative measures.
APPROACHES TO INTERNATIONAL POLITICS
REALIST APPROACH
(REALISM/POLITICAL REALISM)
Concept
Realism has been the dominant perspective in international politics since World War II, largely due to the lack of alternative approaches (McLelland and Pfaltzgraff).
Realism is driven by pragmatism, focusing on what is best for the state, rather than being swayed by idealistic or wishful thinking.
It rejects the idea of moral absolutism, where universal moral principles would guide international relations. Instead, it emphasizes power and self-interest.
Realism is a response to idealism, which believes morals and principles should guide international relations.
International Politics (IP), in the realist view, is primarily about power and self-interest—often referred to as “power politics”.
Hans Morgenthau stated, “Power is the immediate goal,” highlighting the central role of power in international politics.
Assumptions
Realism is based on the assumption that people are selfish and competitive, a concept known as egoism.
States, being composed of selfish individuals, are inherently selfish, greedy, and power-hungry—this is referred to as state egoism.
An example is the United States under Trump, with a focus on national self-interest.
This approach draws from Thomas Hobbes, who argued that such selfishness leads to international conflict as states pursue their own national interests, which are often incompatible with others.
REALIST APPROACH (1970s - Onwards)
Modern realism, while still focused on power, suggests that threats to national security do not always result in conflict. Instead, conflict can often be contained through a balance of power.
Security remains the highest priority in international politics, as emphasized by Kenneth Waltz, who argued that states have the primary responsibility to maintain their security through military acquisition to deter aggression.
Classic Realism
Advocates for a balance of power, achieved either through diplomacy or war.
The goal is to prevent any single state from becoming too powerful, ensuring no state can dominate the international system.
The driving force in classical realism is human nature and the desire for power, which influences state behavior.
Neorealist or Structural Realist
In Neorealism, balance of power is seen not as a tool but as an inherent system that creates its own equilibrium.
The driving force in this approach is envy—states are motivated by competition with one another, often seeking to gain power out of fear of others’ strength.
Neorealism also stresses the environment in which states operate, focusing on how states interact with each other and the structure of the international system.
Like classic realism, neorealism views the international system as anarchical, where there is no central authority, and each state acts in its own self-interest, often leading to shorter-term interests.
Unlike classical realism, neorealism discourages the pursuit of dominance, as it can destabilize the balance of power and provoke widespread conflict. Instead, states should aim to maintain equilibrium to ensure security.
Diplomacy in neorealism is seen as more applied and strategic, compared to the more agent-based focus of classic realism.
LIBERAL APPROACH
Concept
The liberal approach is optimistic, emphasizing moral goodness and human rationality in shaping international politics.
It operates on the Principle of Balance, suggesting that balance naturally emerges in all forms of social interaction, even when individuals or states pursue self-interest.
Belief
Liberals believe that peace and international order do not arise naturally; they require mechanisms to manage and constrain state ambitions.
These mechanisms include international regimes and organizations such as the United Nations, which aim to regulate behavior and ensure cooperation.
Global governance and collective security are seen as vital tools to foster peace and cooperation among nations.
EXAMPLE: Agreements and alliances that deter aggression and promote shared goals.
The domestic analogy underpins this approach: it suggests that lessons from democratic politics (e.g., accountability, rule of law, cooperation) can provide insight into managing international relations.
CRITICAL APPROACHES
Concept
Since the 1980s, Marxism emerged as a key alternative perspective, emphasizing economic power structures rather than the traditional focus on state conflict and cooperation.
Marxism introduced the International Political Economy (IPE) as a subfield of International Relations (IR), highlighting the impact of global capitalism on international relations.
The end of the Cold War accelerated the development of diverse critical approaches, including:
Constructivism
Critical Theory
Poststructuralism
Postcolonialism
Feminism
Green Ideology
Similarities
They challenge the positivism of mainstream IR, focusing on the role of consciousness in shaping societies and global affairs.
Oppose dominant narratives, often aligning with marginalized or oppressed groups to advocate for their perspectives.
Aim to uncover inequalities that traditional approaches often overlook or ignore.
Addressing Security
CONSTRUCTIVISM
Influenced by Alexander Wendt (1999), it argues that states’ actions are shaped by beliefs, values, and assumptions, not just structural dynamics.
Emphasizes the subjective perceptions and interpretations of states regarding the international system, highlighting how these shape behavior and outcomes.
FEMINISM
Critiques realism on two main grounds:
Its masculinist assumptions that prioritize power and militarism.
The security paradox, where military buildup aimed at increasing security often leads to greater insecurity (e.g., arms races escalating tensions).
Jean Bethke Elshtain pointed out that the concept of security and the practice of war are inherently gendered, often reflecting and perpetuating traditional gender roles.
NEW SECURITY CHALLENGES: FROM ‘NEW’ WARS TO CYBERWARS
War
A condition of armed conflict involving two or more parties.
NEW WARD
Characteristics
Primarily civil wars rather than traditional inter-state wars.
Pose greater threats to civilians, often through prolonged violence, displacement, and destruction of infrastructure.
Tend to be asymmetrical, with weaker parties using unconventional strategies to compensate for lack of resources.
Types of Wars
Civil Wars
Armed conflicts between politically organized groups within a state.
Goals: To gain or maintain control over the state or establish a new state.
Inter-State Wars
Military conflicts between separate states often involve territorial disputes or invasions.
Governed by international laws, but violations (e.g., unlawful annexation) make these wars contentious.
Asymmetrical Wars
Conflicts between opponents with unequal military, economic, and technological power.
The weaker side uses guerrilla tactics, terrorism, or other irregular methods.
CYBERWARS
Involve the use of digital network-based technologies to disrupt state or organizational activities.
Goals: Strategic or military advantage, often through:
Hacking critical infrastructure.
Disrupting communication systems.
Spreading disinformation to weaken an adversary.
TERRORISM
A form of political violence aiming to create fear, apprehension, and uncertainty to achieve its goals.
Transnational Terrorism
Terrorism that spans across nations and has a global reach, facilitated by globalization.
Exploits cross-border flows of people, goods, money, technology, and ideas.
Creates the impression of being able to strike anywhere, at any time.
Challenges in Counteracting Terrorism
TERRORIST TACTICS
Suicide terrorism is hard to predict and defend against.
TECHNOLOGICAL IMPACT
Modern technology expands the scope and scale of terrorism.
Risk of Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD) falling into terrorist hands
WMD: Nuclear, radiological, chemical, or biological weapons with massive and indiscriminate destructive capacity.
WILLINGNESS TO USE WMD
Modern terrorists are more likely to acquire and use WMD, amplifying the threat.
Counterterrorism Strategies
STRENGTHENING STATE SECURITY
Revising and expanding the legal powers of governments to counter terrorism more effectively.
FORCE-BASED OR REPRESSIVE MEASURES
Often linked to the ‘war on terror’, employing military and security forces to suppress terrorism.
POLITICAL DEALS AND NEGOTIATIONS
Encouraging terrorists to abandon violence by involving them in diplomacy and dialogue.
NUCLEAR PROLIFERATION
Refers to the spread or increase of nuclear weapons, either through stockpiling or new actors acquiring them.
Key Developments
Vertical Proliferation
The accumulation of nuclear weapons by states that already possess them (e.g., USA, Russia)
Horizontal Proliferation
The acquisition of nuclear weapons by new states or actors (e.g., nations, organizations)
Key Historical Context
MAD Doctrine: Created a tense peace during the Cold War as no rational actor wanted total destruction.
Proliferation Risks: Horizontal proliferation raises fears of non-state actors (e.g., terrorist groups) gaining access to nuclear weapons.
Nuclear proliferation remains a critical issue in international security and diplomacy.
HUMAN SECURITY
Human security focuses on the security of individuals, prioritizing their safety, well-being, and dignity over traditional notions of state security.
Encompasses two core principles
Freedom from Fear: Protection from violence and conflict.
Freedom from Want: Access to basic needs and opportunities for a decent life.
DIMENSIONS OF HUMAN SECURITY