Psychology Notes

Motivation

  • Definition: The impetus that gives purpose or direction to behavior, operating consciously or unconsciously.
  • Types of Motives:
    • Physiological (Primary/Organic): Hunger, thirst, sleep.
    • Personal (Social/Secondary): Affiliation, competition, interests, goals.
  • Internal vs. External Motivating Forces:
    • Internal: Intrinsic motivation.
    • External: Extrinsic motivation (rewards, punishments).
  • Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation:
    • Extrinsic: Motivation due to external outcomes (promotions, pay raises, bonuses, benefits, prizes, winning, perks).
    • Intrinsic: Motivation due to interest and enjoyment in the task itself (enjoyment, purpose, personal growth, curiosity, passion, self-expression, and fun).

6 Intrinsic Motivators in Education

  • Autonomy
  • Belonging
  • Competence
  • Purpose
  • Fun
  • Curiosity

Personality

  • Definition: The enduring configuration of characteristics and behavior that comprises an individual’s unique adjustment to life. Includes traits, interests, drives, values, self-concept, abilities, and emotional patterns.
  • Formation: Shaped by heredity, physical maturation, early training, identification with individuals/groups, cultural values/roles, and critical experiences/relationships.

Big Five Personality Traits (OCEAN)

  • Openness: Imaginative/spontaneous vs. practical/routine.
  • Conscientiousness: Disciplined/careful vs. impulsive/disorganized.
  • Extraversion: Sociable/fun-loving vs. reserved/thoughtful.
  • Agreeableness: Trusting/helpful vs. suspicious/uncooperative.
  • Neuroticism: Calm/confident vs. anxious/pessimistic.

Intelligence

  • Definition: The ability to derive information, learn from experience, adapt to the environment, understand, and utilize thought and reason.
  • Key Aspects: Quick adaptation to new situations and efficient solution of complex cognitive tasks.
  • Criteria for Determining Intelligence: Novelty or complexity. Complexity is more frequently applied in measurement due to the difficulty of arranging novel tasks in controlled conditions.

Gardner's Multiple Intelligences

  • Initially proposed seven, now eight intelligences.
  • Definition: Biopsychological potential to process information that can be activated in a cultural setting to solve problems or create products valuable in that culture.
  • Types:
    • Linguistic: Sensitivity to spoken and written language.
    • Logical/Mathematical: Capacity to analyze problems logically and carry out mathematical operations.
    • Spatial: Ability to perceive the visual-spatial world accurately.
    • Bodily-Kinesthetic: Potential to use the whole body or parts of it to solve problems.
    • Musical: Skill in the performance, composition, and appreciation of musical patterns.
    • Interpersonal: Capacity to understand the intentions, motivations, and desires of others.
    • Intrapersonal: Capacity to understand oneself, including desires, fears, and capacities.
    • Naturalist: Ability to recognize, categorize, and draw upon patterns in the natural environment.

Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

  • Specifies the mental mechanisms behind intelligent behavior.
  • Selectivity: The decision to allocate cognitive resources to prioritize specific content of a task.
  • Sub-theories:
    • Componential: Cognitive processes underlying problem-solving.
      • Metacomponents
      • Performance
      • Knowledge Acquisition
    • Experiential: Deals with novelty and automation.
      • Novelty
      • Automation
    • Contextual: Adaptation, selection, and shaping of environments.
      • Adaptation
      • Selection
      • Remodeling
  • Usefulness in Education:
    • Encourages capitalizing on strengths and compensating for weaknesses.
    • Facilitates varied approaches to learning and understanding.
    • Increases motivation through attractive presentation materials.
  • Improving Students’ Intelligent Behavior:
    • Relating to real-world problems.
    • Teaching general cognitive learning strategies.
    • Developing metacognitive skills.
    • Designing programs to acquire knowledge and a problem-solving style.
    • Training and practicing monitoring and control skills.

Basic Psychology Terms

Abnormal Psychology

  • Study, assessment, treatment, and prevention of maladaptive behavior.

Therapy

  • Remediation of physical, mental, or behavioral disorders or disease.

Anxiety

  • Emotion characterized by apprehension and somatic symptoms of tension, anticipating danger, catastrophe, or misfortune.
  • Physiological response: Muscle tension, faster breathing, rapid heartbeat.

Anxiety vs. Fear

  • Anxiety: Future-oriented, long-acting, focused on a diffuse threat.
  • Fear: Present-oriented, short-lived, response to a specific threat.
  • Types of Anxiety Disorders:
    • Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)
    • Social Anxiety
    • Specific Phobias
    • Panic Disorder
    • Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)
    • Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)
  • Persistent and excessive worry across multiple areas.
  • Continuous worrying about health, family, relationships, education, employment, etc.
Social Anxiety
  • Avoidance of social gatherings due to the belief of experiencing anxiety.
  • May lead to consultation with medical practitioners or counselors if it affects well-being.
Specific Phobias
  • Intense, irrational fear of a specific object or situation that poses little to no actual danger.
  • Common phobias: Situations (airplanes, enclosed spaces), nature (thunderstorms, heights), animals (insects, spiders).
Panic Disorder
  • Recurrent, unexpected panic attacks.
  • Panic attacks: Abrupt surges of intense fear or discomfort that peak within minutes (DSM-5 definition).
  • Fear of having panic attacks.
  • Factors increasing risk: Family history, loss of a loved one, sexual assault, accidents.
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)
  • Repetitive, intrusive thoughts (obsessions).
  • Repetitive routines (compulsions).
  • Causes distress and impairs functioning.
  • Types: Contamination, forbidden thoughts.
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
  • Triggered by a terrifying event or situation.
  • Factors increasing risk: Family history of PTSD.
  • Experiences leading to PTSD: Death of a loved one, sexual assault, physical abuse, accidents.

Depression

  • Negative affective state ranging from unhappiness to extreme sadness and despondency.
  • Interferes with daily life.
  • Changes include altered eating/sleeping habits, lack of energy, difficulty concentrating, and social withdrawal.

Self-Esteem

  • Definition: The degree to which the qualities and characteristics in one’s self-concept are perceived positively (APA).
  • Reflects physical self-image, accomplishments, capabilities, values, and perceived success, as well as others' views.
  • High self-esteem is considered important for mental health.
  • Low self-esteem is a common depressive symptom.
Factors Influencing Self-Esteem
  • Perceived belongingness and fit with cultural standards.
  • Evaluations from others, especially caregivers (parents) and teachers in childhood.
  • Attachment Theory (Bowlby, 1982): Attachment history can provide insights into self-esteem.
    * Secure Attachment
    * Anxious-Resistant (or Ambivalent) Attachment
    * Avoidant Attachment
  • Fostering Secure Attachment: Consistent, warm, and responsive caregiving.
  • Avoidant Attachment: Consistent rejection or coldness leading to self-reliance.
  • Anxious Attachment: Inconsistent or over-protective parenting leading to dependence on reassurance.
  • Adolescence: Peer evaluations and perceived attractiveness become important.
  • Adulthood: Perceived acceptance from others remains the best predictor of self-esteem.

Psychotherapy

  • Use of communication and interaction to assess, diagnose, and treat dysfunctional emotional reactions, ways of thinking, and behavior patterns.
  • Provided to individuals, couples, families, or groups.
  • Major Categories:
    • Psychodynamic Psychotherapy
    • Cognitive Therapy or Behavior Therapy
    • Humanistic Therapy
    • Integrative Psychotherapy

Different Fields of Psychology

  • Biopsychology
  • Educational Psychology
  • Clinical Psychology
  • Social Psychology
  • Industrial-Organizational Psychology
  • Sports Psychology

Social Psychology

  • Study of how thoughts, feelings, and actions are affected by the actual, imagined, or symbolically represented presence of other people (Gordon W. Allport).
  • Psychological versus Sociological: Psychological social psychology emphasizes internal processes, while sociological social psychology focuses on factors affecting social life.

Clinical Psychology

  • Research, assessment, diagnosis, evaluation, prevention, and treatment of emotional and behavioral disorders.
  • Clinical psychologists are doctorate-level professionals trained in research methods.
  • Work in health and mental health clinics, research, academic settings, or independent practices.

Educational Psychology

  • Application of psychological principles and theories to teaching, training, and learning issues. Addresses psychological problems in educational systems. Educational psychologists hold applied and academic positions engaging in many teaching, research, and applications.

Cognitive Psychology

  • What is cognitive psychology in short terms?
  • What are 2 basic principles that oppose them to opponents?
  • What is the MSM?
  • What did the study of Glanzer and Cunitz (1966) involve?
  • What two effects are discussed with regard to the study mentioned above?
  • What words were used instead of „hit” in the study by E. Loftus?