Unit 1 AP Psychology Exam

Natural Selection

The evolutionary process by which traits that improve survival and reproduction are passed on to future generations.

Eugenics

A discredited movement promoting selective breeding to improve the genetic quality of humans.

Twin, Adoption, & Family Studies

Methods used to estimate genetic and environmental influences by comparing similarities among relatives, twins, and adoptees.

Monozygotic vs. Dizygotic Twins

Monozygotic (identical) twins share 100% of their genes; dizygotic (fraternal) twins share about 50%.

Epigenetics

Study of how environmental factors affect gene expression without changing DNA structure.

Neurons (parts)

Basic nerve cells with dendrites (receive info), soma (cell body), axon (sends info), myelin sheath (insulation), and axon terminals (release neurotransmitters).

Glial Cells

Support neurons by providing nutrients, cleaning waste, and forming myelin.

Reflex Arc

Automatic response to a stimulus that involves sensory, interneurons, and motor neurons without brain input.

Sensory Neurons

Carry messages from sensory receptors to the central nervous system (CNS).

Motor Neurons

Carry commands from CNS to muscles and glands.

Interneurons

Connect sensory and motor neurons within the spinal cord and brain.

Mirror Neurons

Neurons that fire both when performing and when observing an action; related to empathy and imitation.

Dopamine

Neurotransmitter involved in movement, reward, and motivation; imbalance linked to Parkinson’s or schizophrenia.

Serotonin

Regulates mood, sleep, and appetite; low levels linked to depression.

Norepinephrine

Controls alertness and arousal; undersupply can cause depression.

Glutamate

Major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory; oversupply = migraines/seizures.

GABA

Major inhibitory neurotransmitter; undersupply = seizures, anxiety.

Substance P

Transmits pain information.

Endorphins

Natural painkillers that produce euphoria and reduce pain.

Acetylcholine (ACh)

Enables muscle action, learning, and memory; deficiency = Alzheimer’s.

Resting Potential

The negative electrical charge of a neuron when not firing.

Action Potential

A neural impulse; brief electrical charge traveling down the axon.

Absolute Refractory Period

Time after firing when a neuron cannot fire again.

All-or-Nothing Principle

Neuron fires completely or not at all.

Inhibitory vs. Excitatory Neurotransmitters

Inhibitory decrease firing likelihood; excitatory increase it.

Reuptake

Neurotransmitters reabsorbed by the sending neuron.

Synaptic Pruning

Removal of unused neural connections during development.

Agonist

Drug that mimics or enhances neurotransmitter activity.

Antagonist

Drug that blocks or inhibits neurotransmitter activity.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Nerves connecting CNS to the rest of the body.

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

Controls involuntary functions like heart rate and digestion.

Somatic Nervous System

Controls voluntary muscle movements.

Sympathetic vs. Parasympathetic Division

Sympathetic = arousal (“fight or flight”); Parasympathetic = calming (“rest and digest”).

Fight-Flight Response

Body’s physiological reaction to perceived threat, increasing alertness and energy.

Lesioning

Deliberate destruction of brain tissue to study function.

EEG

Measures electrical brain activity via scalp electrodes.

fMRI

Shows active brain areas using blood oxygen levels.

Brainstem

Controls vital life functions like heartbeat and breathing.

Hindbrain: Medulla, Cerebellum

Medulla: heartbeat/breathing; Cerebellum: balance and coordination.

Midbrain: Reticular Activating System (RAS)

Regulates arousal and attention.

Forebrain: Cerebrum, Cerebral Cortex

Cerebrum: largest part for higher functions; Cortex: outer layer for thought and perception.

Limbic System (Thalamus, Hypothalamus, Hippocampus, Amygdala)

Emotional and memory system: Thalamus = sensory relay; Hypothalamus = body regulation; Hippocampus = memory; Amygdala = emotion.

Occipital Lobe / Visual Cortex

Processes visual information.

Parietal Lobe / Somatosensory Cortex

Processes touch and spatial awareness.

Temporal Lobe / Auditory Cortex

Processes sound.

Frontal Lobe / Prefrontal & Motor Cortex

Prefrontal = decision-making, personality; Motor = voluntary movement.

Brain Plasticity

Brain’s ability to change and reorganize after injury or experience.

Neurogenesis

Formation of new neurons.

Broca’s Area

Produces speech.

Wernicke’s Area

Understands language.

Aphasia

Impairment of language due to brain damage.

Left Hemisphere

Controls language, logic, and math.

Right Hemisphere

Controls creativity, spatial reasoning, and facial recognition.

Corpus Callosum

Connects and allows communication between hemispheres.

Split Brain Research (Sperry & Gazzaniga)

Studied patients with severed corpus callosum; showed contralateral control (left brain → right body).

Hormones: Adrenaline, Leptin, Melatonin, Oxytocin, Ghrelin

Adrenaline = arousal; Leptin = appetite suppression; Melatonin = sleep regulation; Oxytocin = bonding; Ghrelin = hunger signal.

Pituitary Gland

“Master gland” controlling other glands; releases growth hormones.

Multiple Sclerosis (MS)

Immune system destroys myelin sheath, slowing neural communication.

Myasthenia Gravis

Immune disorder blocking acetylcholine receptors → muscle weakness.

Evolutionary Psychology

Studies how natural selection shaped behavior and mental traits.

Critical Period

Time during development when learning certain skills is easiest.

Consciousness

Awareness of oneself and the environment.

Sleep Stages with EEG Patterns

Identified by different brain wave patterns on EEG.

Brain Waves: Beta, Alpha, Theta, Delta

Beta = alert; Alpha = relaxed; Theta = light sleep; Delta = deep sleep.

Circadian Rhythms

24-hour biological cycles regulating sleep, temperature, hormones.

Pineal Gland (Melatonin)

Secretes melatonin to regulate sleep-wake cycles.

Jet Lag

Disruption of circadian rhythms due to travel across time zones.

NREM Stages 1–3 (Stage 4)

Non-REM sleep; light to deep restorative stages.

Hypnagogic Sensations

Vivid sensations (falling, floating) as you drift into sleep (Stage 1).

REM Sleep (Paradoxical Sleep)

Rapid eye movement; dreaming occurs; brain active, body paralyzed.

REM Rebound

Increased REM after deprivation, showing its importance.

Sleep Deprivation/Disruption Effects

Impairs memory, reaction time, immunity, and mood.

Insomnia

Difficulty falling or staying asleep.

Narcolepsy

Sudden, uncontrollable sleep attacks.

Sleep Apnea

Temporary cessation of breathing during sleep.

Somnambulism

Sleepwalking; occurs during deep NREM sleep.

REM Sleep Behavior Disorder

Lack of muscle paralysis during REM → acting out dreams.

Activation-Synthesis Theory (Hobson & McCarley)

Dreams result from random neural activity the brain tries to make sense of.

Consolidation (Memory) Dream Theory

Dreams help strengthen and store memories.

Stimulants

Drugs that speed up nervous system activity (e.g., caffeine, cocaine).

Caffeine

Stimulant increasing alertness by blocking adenosine.

Cocaine

Stimulant increasing dopamine levels → euphoria.

Depressants

Slow nervous system activity (e.g., alcohol).

Alcohol

Depressant reducing inhibitions, coordination, and judgment.

Hallucinogens

Cause sensory distortions (e.g., LSD, marijuana).

Marijuana

Mild hallucinogen altering perception and mood.

Opioids

Pain-relieving drugs that mimic endorphins (e.g., heroin).

Heroin

Opioid producing euphoria and strong physical dependence.

Addiction

Compulsive drug use despite consequences.

Tolerance

Needing more of a drug to achieve the same effect.

Physical Dependence

Physiological need for a drug to avoid withdrawal.

Psychological Dependence

Emotional craving for a drug’s effects.

Withdrawal

Physical and psychological distress after stopping a drug.

Brain’s Reward Center (Mesolimbic Dopamine Pathway / Nucleus Accumbens)

Pathway activated by pleasurable activities and drugs; releases dopamine and reinforces behavior.