History and Theories of Modern Design: From Arts and Crafts to Art Deco

Early Theories of Design and Critical Responses to Industrialization

Following the World Industrial Exhibitions of the $19^{\text{th}}$ century, a group of critics emerged with negative views on mechanization and industrialization. These theorists posed three fundamental questions that would shape the future of design theory: whether a machine was capable of creating works of art or high-quality design; where the boundaries lay between applied arts and high arts; and what specific role the artist should play within the modern industrial production process. Theorists of this era sought to define the nature of the objective environment and investigate the roles of beauty, function, and craftsmanship in human life.

Franz Reuleaux (\text{Ֆրանց Րյոլո}), a German scientist in the field of mechanics and mechanical engineering, was the first in design history to formally link technical engineering with culture. He argued that the unified and harmonious development of art and technology was indeed possible. Collective efforts by these early thinkers established the core principles of design, including functionality, aesthetics, the correct use of materials, the relationship between humans and objects, and the interaction between art and production. These ideas laid the groundwork for Modernism, the Bauhaus, and contemporary industrial design.

William Morris and the Philosophy of Arts and Crafts

William Morris (\text{Ուիլյամ Մորրիս}) is recognized as one of the first major representatives of design theory. He was a staunch critic of industrial production, believing that machine-made products lacked artistic value and human warmth. His ideology was built on several key pillars: art must be integrated with everyday life; beautiful objects must also be useful; manual craftsmanship holds high value; and design should serve the whole of society rather than just the wealthy. In $1861$, he founded the company Morris, Marshall, Faulkner & Co. (later known as Morris & Co.), which produced textiles, furniture, and stained glass. Morris’s ideas became the foundation of the Arts and Crafts movement.

John Ruskin and the Rejection of the Machine

John Ruskin (\text{Ջոն Րյոսկին}) significantly influenced the formation of Morris’s ideas. He advocated for medieval craft culture and harshly criticized industrial society. Ruskin’s philosophy included an absolute rejection of technology and machines, a struggle for the revival of traditional crafts, and the belief that the $19^{\text{th}}$ century witnessed a decline in art. He maintained that applied art is fundamental and that a natural connection exists between beauty and utility.

Gottfried Semper and the Science of Form

Gottfried Semper (\text{Գոտֆրիդ Զեմպեր}) studied the origins of art and form, proposing that any form arises from the material, technology, and the method of work. He emphasized that form is tied to the properties of the material and that technique and structure shape the final artistic appearance. Semper pioneered the formula of "function + material + technology," which became a cornerstone of modernist design. His significant written works include "Science, Industry and Art" (\text{Գիտություն արտադրություն և արվեստ}), "The Four Elements of Architecture" (\text{Ճարտարապետության չորս տարրերը}), and the work "Style in the Technical and Tectonic Arts or Practical Aesthetics" (\text{Ոճը տեխնիկական և տեկտոնիական արվեստներում կամ Պրակտիկ գեղագիտություն}). He is also known for designing the Semper Opera House buildings in Dresden.

The Arts and Crafts Movement in Great Britain

The Arts and Crafts movement originated in England during the late Victorian era in the late $19^{\text{th}}$ century as a reaction to the Industrial Revolution. It was led by William Morris and based on Pre-Raphaelite ideology, which idealized the unique creations of medieval craftsmen in contrast to the "soulless and faceless" machine products of the capitalist era. Supporters formed guilds and associations, such as the Art Workers' Guild, to share expertise and maintain specialized styles.

The movement progressed through two stages in Great Britain. In the first stage, led by Morris, preference was given to simplicity, clarity of volumes, and an abundance of floral and faunal patterns, prominently seen in Morris’s wallpapers. The second stage introduced abstract motifs and supernatural mythological characters into decorative-applied arts. To increase visibility, the movement organized the "Arts and Crafts Exhibition Society," with its first exhibition held in $1888$ at the New Gallery on Regent Street in London, led by Walter Crane (\text{Ուոլթեր Քրեյն}).

Notable followers of the movement include:

• William Morris ($1834 - 1896$): Painter, writer, and art theorist.
• Edward Coley Burne-Jones ($1833 - 1898$): Artist famous for stained glass.
• Philip Speakman Webb ($1831 - 1915$): Architect and designer in the modern style.
• Arthur Heygate Mackmurdo ($1851 - 1942$): Artist and architect.
• Charles Robert Ashbee ($1863 - 1942$): Architect and designer.
• Charles Francis Annesley Voysey ($1857 - 1941$): Architect and designer.
• Ernest William Gimson ($1864 - 1919$).
• John Henry Dearle ($1859 - 1932$): Textile and stained glass designer.
• Herbert Percy Horne ($1864 - 1916$).
• Marshall & Snelgrove Ltd ($1895 - 1900$): Clothing design.
• Charles Rennie Mackintosh ($1868 - 1928$): Founder of the modernist direction in Scotland.

Art Nouveau and Regional Stylistic Directions

Art Nouveau, also known as the Modern style, flourished between $1880$ and $1914$. It was characterized by a belief that art could transform lives, a rejection of eclecticism, and a search for a unified plastic language. The movement sought to synthesize different art forms, methods, and styles into a total designed environment where the distinction between constructive and decorative elements vanished. Key features include smooth, curved linear solutions inspired by nature—the "whiplash" line—and the use of materials such as reinforced concrete, steel, glass, ceramics, bronze, copper, and brick.

Regional names for the style included:

• Art Nouveau or Tiffany: France, Belgium, and the USA.
• Modern Style: Great Britain.
• Jugendstil: Germany.
• Secession: Austria and the Czech Republic.
• Liberty Style: Italy.
• Modernismo: Spain.
• Nieuwe Kunst: Netherlands.

Major pioneers of the style included Victor Horta (\text{Վիկտոր Օրտա}), who designed the Innovation department store and Hôtel Tassel, where he first used the "whiplash" line. In Austria, Otto Wagner (\text{Օտտո Վագներ}) joined the Vienna Secession in $1897$, designing works like St. Leopold's Church and the Majolica House. Josef Hoffmann (\text{Յոզեֆ Հոֆման}), a student of Wagner, was a founder of the Wiener Werkstätte and designed the Stoclet Palace in Brussels. In France, Hector Guimard (\text{Հեկտոր Գիմար}) became famous for the entrance pavilions of the Paris Metro and the Castel Béranger.

Antoni Gaudí and Catalan Modernism

In the $1890\text{s}$, Catalan Modernism emerged in Barcelona, Spain, characterized by expressiveness, the free use of architectural volumes, and active color application. Antoni Gaudí (\text{Անտոնիո Գաուդի}) developed a unique architectural language inspired by nature. His buildings feature wavy forms, colored ceramic decorations, complex geometry, and the imitation of natural shapes. Gaudí aimed to unite architecture, sculpture, and decorative arts. His most significant work is the Basilica and Expiatory Church of the Holy Family (Sagrada Família), which began construction in $1882$ and continues today. Other notable projects include Casa Milà, Casa Batlló, Park Güell, Palau Güell, and Casa Vicens, all of which are UNESCO World Heritage sites.

Charles Rennie Mackintosh and the Glasgow School

Charles Rennie Mackintosh (\text{Չառլզ Ռեննի Մակինթոշ}) was the most important figure of the Modern style in Scotland. Working in Glasgow, he developed a style based on the contrast between strong right angles and floral-inspired decorative motifs with subtle curves. He formed the collaborative group known as "The Four" or the "Glasgow Four" with Margaret Macdonald, Frances Macdonald, and Herbert MacNair. His international reputation was secured by the Glasgow School of Art. Other major works include the Hill House, the Willow Tea Rooms, and the Queen’s Cross Church. Mackintosh’s work often involved the comprehensive design of every detail, from the building's structure to its internal furnishings, significantly influencing the Vienna Secession movement around $1900$.

Art Deco: Luxury and Geometry

Art Deco ($1910 - 1939$) was a decorative art movement that surfaced prominently at the $1925$ International Exhibition of Modern Decorative and Industrial Arts in Paris. It stood in opposition to pragmatism, emphasizing luxury and sophistication as a psychological reaction to the asceticism of World War I. Art Deco is eclectic, incorporating influences from Eastern exoticism, Cubism, Constructivism, Futurism, and the cultures of ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, and pre-Columbian America (Aztec and Mayan).

Key characteristics include:

• Symmetrical, geometric volumes and sharp lines.
• Step-like shapes (Ziggurats) and zigzag decor.
• High-contrast colors: black and white, silver, gold, and bright accents of red, green, and blue.
• Modern materials: Bakelite, chrome, aluminum, and animal skin imitations.
• Motifs such as stylized tropical vegetation, piano keys, and the sun.

In the USA during the $1930\text{s}$, Art Deco evolved into "Streamline Moderne." Iconic American works include the Chrysler Building by William Van Alen ($1928 - 1930$) and projects by Ely Jacques Kahn and Joseph Urban. Major French representatives included Robert Mallet-Stevens, Jacques-Émile Ruhlmann, André Groult, and Paul Iribe.

The Deutscher Werkbund and the Professionalization of Design

As industrial production expanded, the term "Industrial Design" emerged in the mid-$20^{\text{th}}$ century to describe professional form-making. The German Werkbund (Deutscher Werkbund), founded in $1907$ in Munich, was a pivotal association of artists, architects, craftsmen, and industrialists. Initiated by Fritz Schumacher and led by theorist Hermann Muthesius, its goal was to improve the quality of mass-produced industrial goods. The Werkbund replaced the traditional concept of "Kunstgewerbe" (associated with historicism) with the term "Werk" (Work), focusing on constructive and functional qualities.

Members included Peter Behrens, Josef Hoffmann, Bruno Taut, and El Lissitzky. The group published the journal "Die Form," promoting Rationalism and Functionalism. The Werkbund served as a bridge between Jugendstil and Modernism. Although dissolved by the Nazis in $1933$, it was reorganized in $1947$ in Düsseldorf under Hans Schwippert, continuing until roughly $1963$.

Peter Behrens: The First Industrial Designer

Peter Behrens ($1868 - 1940$) is considered the founder of modern industrial design and corporate identity. In $1907$, he was invited by Walther Rathenau, the head of the German concern AEG (Allgemeine Elektricitäts-Gesellschaft), to serve as the chief artistic consultant for architecture and industrial production. Behrens was the first to implement a "corporate style" (\text{ֆիրմային ոճ}), designing everything from the company's logos and advertising to its products and factory buildings.

His most famous architectural achievement is the AEG Turbine Factory in Berlin ($1909$), a masterpiece of industrialism. He also designed standardized housing and electrical appliances for company employees, using design as a tool for corporate culture. Behrens had a profound influence on the next generation of architects, with Walter Gropius, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, and Le Corbusier all serving as his students. Between $1922$ and $1936$, he headed the architecture department at the Academy of Fine Arts Vienna.