ANT 111 Exam
10/28/24 EBA Ch. 11 (pp. 314-321)
The Origins and Evolution of Early Homo
Ernst Haeckel (1834-1919): Germany's preeminent anatomist and evolutionary biologist of the late 19th century
Came up with an entirely different origin scenario (than Darwins: Africa as the birthplace of the earliest hominins)
Reasoned that the Asian great ape, the orangutan, is more anatomically similar to humans than are the African great apes
He went into great detail, even including a name: Pithecanthropus, meaning “ape-man”
Eugene Dubois (1858-1940): discovered, on the island of Java, one of the southernmost islands of what is now Indonesia, he discovered what was later identified as Homo erectus
Not Homo sapien– it had a low and long braincase, no forehead to speak of, and large brow ridges like apes’
Dubois estimated that in life the brain had been about 1,000 cc, too big for a modern ape (a chimpanzee’s brain is 400cc) and too small for a modern human (the average human brain today is about 1,450cc)
He called his fossil Pithecanthropus erectus meaning “upright-walking ape-man” (later known as homo erectus)
Dubois was wrong in thinking that evidence of the earliest human would be found in Southeast Asia, but he was working in a scientific vacuum.
Homo habilis: The First Species of the Genus Homo
Modern humans are distinctive in having large brains and depending on material culture for survival.
Rather than relying on their bodies for collecting, processing, and eating food, modern humans rely on tools and technology as part of their adaptive strategy.
Soon after the discovery of the massively robust australopithecine Australopithecus boisei, remains of a hominin having jaws, teeth, and a fact that were relatively smaller and a relatively larger brain were found, also in Olduvai Gorge.
Its describers–Louis Leakey, Philip Tobias (1925-2012), and John Napier–recognized the significance of this combination of characteristics and named the new hominin Homo Habilis meaning “handyman”
Homo habilis: the earliest Homo species, a possible descendant of Au. Garhi an ancestor to H. erectus; showed the first substantial increase in brain size and was the first species associated with the production and use of stone tools.
Homo habilis is now known from Tanzania, Kenya, Ethiopia, Malawi, and South Africa–the same geographic distribution as that of the contemporary australopithecines.
Found on the eastern side of Kenya’s Lake Turkana is sometimes called Homo rudolfensis
The major difference is that H. rudolfensis is somewhat bigger than H. habilis.
H. habilis differs in its anatomy from the robust australopithecines dating to about the same time in East Africa and South Africa
Australopithecus boisei had an enormous chewing complex–its back teeth, jaws, and face were very large–but it had a small brain.
H. habilis had a smaller chewing complex and increased brain size, this gave the skull a more rounded, or globular, appearance (began the lineage leading to modern humans
This all suggests that the evolutionary transition and appearance of Homo was sometimes around 3.0-2.5 mya
EX. Ledi-Geraru in the Afar region of Ethiopia, a partial mandible dating to 2.8 mya combines large teeth (Australopithecus) with Homo-like morphology
For many years, H. habilis was known from just skulls and teeth
Excavations at Olduvai Gorge in the 1980s by Donald Johanson and his field teams led to the discovery of a very fragmentary but important skeleton of H. habilis, known as OH 62
The skeleton is from an individual that was about 1.1 m (3.5ft)-like the australopithecines; also had short legs in comparison to its arms
Homo habilis: The First Member of Out Lineage
Homo habilis was the first hominin to have anatomical and behavioral characteristics that foreshadowed the evolution of Homo sapiens: greater intelligence, reliance on tools, and dietary and behavioral flexibility
Location: Africa (olduvai Gorge, Lake turkana, Afar, Omo, uraha, Sterkfontein)
Chronology; 2.8-1.8 mya
Biology and Culture (compared with Australopithecines)
Homo habilis’s adaptation: intelligence and tool use become important
Homo habilis’s short legs indicate that the species retained a primitive form of bipedalism, more australopithecine than human
Much more telling about H. habilis’s adaptation and evolution are skull and teeth morphology and evidence of the making and use of stone tools
Fossil skills and fossil teeth reveal that this hominin ancestor had a larger brain, smaller chewing muscles, and smaller teeth than those of earlier and contemporary hominins, the australopithecines
Anatomical evidence from the study of hand bones, such as the presence of muscles that would have provided the necessary precision grip, suggest that H. habilis and at least some of the australopithecines made and used stone tools
For several reasons, toolmaking and tool use were likely more important in H. habilis’s adaptation
Stone tools are more common in h. Habilis fossil sites than in Australopithecus fossil sites
The presence of butchery marks produced by a hominin using stone tools indicates clear access to animal sources of protein
H. habilis's expanding brain size indicates that it was smarter than Australopithecus, with a kind of cognitive advancement almost certainly linked to toolmaking and tool use
In contrast, the australopithecines became increasingly specialized, focusing on a narrower range of foods that required extremely heavy chewing.
Habitat Changes and Increasing Adaptive Flexibility
Environmental reconstruction of the East African and South African landscapes at 2.5 mya provides some insight into early Homo’s adaptive shifts
This reconstruction indicates:
A spread of warm-season (C4) grasses
Increasing habitat diversity
Increasing food resources exploited by early hominins
Such information, along with skull and teeth morphology, suggests early Homo’s increasing dietary versatility
Tools may have played a central role in these early hominins’ ability to exploit this increasingly diverse landscape
Stone tools were likely important for digging roots and tuber and for processing them for consumption
Homo erectus: Early Homo Goes Global
Beginning around 1.8 mya, a new hominin appeared, H. erectus, which has anatomical characteristics that distinguished it from H. habilis
It was found in the late 19th century by Eugene Dubois at Trinil in Java
Large brow ridge, long and low skull, bigger brain
During this period of evolution, hominins left Africa and moved toward Asia and Europe
Homo erectus in Africa (1.8-0.3 mya)
The earliest record of H. erectus was 2 mya
The earliest skeleton was a juvenile from nariokotome, Lake Turkana; dates about 1.6 mya
One of the most striking modern characteristics is the combination of relatively short arms and long legs
Features of the pelvic bone and overall size indicate that the nariokotome individual was likely a young adolescent male
166 cm (65 in)
Cranial capacity was about 900 cc
Ileret fossil found of potential female H. erectus; footstep tracks found also indicating bipedal walking
Footprints included a double arch (the long one extending from your heel to the base of your toes and the shorter side-to-side one in the back of your toes) and an adducted big toe- a big toe, or a great toe, that is close to the second toe; compare with abducted.
Homo erectus at 1 million years ago
During the process of cleaning the facial bone of the Bodo skull, Tim White found a series of barely visible linear marks on the left cheek, around the left eye orbit and the nose, and elsewhere on the skull; indicating tool use.
Homo Erectus in Asia (1.8-0.3 mya)
The earliest evidence of hominins outside of Africa is a series of primitive stone tools dating to 2.1 mya and excavated at Shangchen, China, by Chinese paleoanthropologist Zhaoyu Zhu.
The earliest fossil evidence of H. erectus in Asia consists of 5 skulls, other bones, and many stone tools found in Dmanisi, Georgia.
The skeletons from Asia compared to the ones in Africa showed their faces were smaller and their brow ridges were less developed.
Cranial capacity of only about 650 cc
Most H. erectus skeletons included a sagittal keel: a slight ridge of bone along the midline sagittal suture of the cranium, which is typically found on H. erectus skulls.
Homo Erectus in Europe (1.2-0.4 mya)
The earliest presence and subsequent evolution of H. erectus were somewhat later in Europe than in Africa and Asia
Western Europe, Sierra de Atapuerca in northern Spain- dated about 1.2 mya
Partial mandible and some teeth, along with animal bones showing cut marks from butchering
Evolution of Homo Erectus: Biological Change, Adaptation, and Improved Nutrition
Height change (males increased by 33% (to 1.8 m or 5.9ft)) (females increased by 37% (to 1.6m or 5.3 ft))
Trends from Homo Habilis to Homo Erectus
Reduction in size of teeth
Reduction in size of face and jaw relative to the size of the braincase
Brain increased in size
Brow ridge increased in size
Cranial bone increased thickness
The body increased in size
Arms had a reduction in length
Increase in length of legs
What caused the rapid increase in body size from H. habilis to H. erectus?
Various factors like climate change and its impact on the food supply
Fundamental reason was likely the increased access to animal food sources–protein– acquired from hunting
Acheulean Complex: the stone tool culture associated with H. erectus; characterized by the use of handaxes and other types of stone tools. It was more refined than the earlier Oldowan Complex
Wrangham’s cooking hypothesis is built on the premise that the cooking of food for their bodies to take full advantage of animal sources of protein for growth and development
Fire likely played a role in hominin’s adaptation to regions of the globe where the temperature is cold for at least part of the year
10/31/24 The Genus Homo
Part 1: Early Homo
What does it mean to be human?
Some human traits:
Huge brains
Body proportions: larger bodies, shorter arms, striding bipedalism
Adapting with material culture
Tentative hominin phylogeny
The genus Homo appears between 3.0 and 2.5 mya in East Africa
Mandible (bottom row of teeth) from the Afar region of Ethiopia
2.8 mya
Homo habilis discovery
1960
Louis and Mary Leakey
Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania
Juvenile partial skull
“OH 7”
~ 1.75 mya
Leakey and colleagues: OH 7 represented something new
Surprisingly small molars compared to OH 5 (Au. boisei)
Larger brain size (~650 cc)
Homo habilis
“Handyman”
~2.8-1.8 mya
Controversial idea at the time:
Two hominin species were living at Olduvai at the same time (~1.8mya)
Au. boisei & H. habilis
1973: KNM-ER 1470
Famous habilis specimen
Richard Leakey
Koobi Fora, Kenya
2.1 mya
Brain size (775 cc) considerably larger than Australopithecines
Early Homo vs. Australopithecus
Larger brain
Rounder cranial vault
Less prognathism face
Smaller cheek teeth
The postcranial skeleton is still australopith-like:
Short stature
Limb proportions (short legs)
Brain sizes (avg.)
Chimps: 395 cc
Au. afarensis: 450 cc
Robust australopiths: 520 cc
Early Homo: 650 cc
Modern human: 1350 cc
Lumping & splitting views of variation in early Homo
Size & shape variation: some crania from Koobi Fora are much smaller than 1470
KNM-ER 1813 and 1470
Similar date
Same site
1813:
Brain size ~⅓ smaller
Smaller face
Smaller teeth
Sexual dimorphism? Separate species?
H. rudolfensis: larger individuals (e.g. 1470)
H. habilis: smaller individuals (e.g. 1813)
If you are a splitter, then which one leads to humans?
Habilis: better fit based on dental and facial morphology
Rudolfensis: better fit based on brain size
H. habilis way of life: adapting to culture
Stone tools are common at H. habilis sites
Oldowan tool industry
Tool-making goal: sharp edges
Cutting, chopping, digging, cracking open bone
Core: lump of stone used to produce flakes
Flake: fragments used as cutting tools
Hammerstone: removes flakes from cores
Butchering sites
Oldowan sites exhibit stone tools alongside processed animal remains
Cut marks
Percussion pits
Crushed bones
11/4/24 The Genus Homo Part 2: Homo erectus
~ 1.8 mya, the nature of the hominin fossil record changes:
More human-like body plan
Different adaptive pattern
First to leave Africa
Climate change in the Pleistocene (1.8 mya)
Temperatures dropped
H. erectus discovery
Eugene Dubois
SE Asia: Java, Trinil site
1891: received a skullcap
Later: teeth, femur
Dubois noted:
Bipedalism
Large brain (~900 cc)
Heavy brow ridges
H. erectus geographic range: (2 mya- 300 kya)
H. erectus vs. early Homo
Larger body size
100+ pounds
5+ feet
Legs longer relative to arms
Larger brain
Largest habilis brain: 775 cc
H. erectus range: 600-1200 cc
Slightly smaller teeth
H. erectus cranial morphology
Sagittal crest
Large brow ridge
Prognathism
Receding chin
H. erectus had heavy brow ridges (supraorbital torus)
H. habilis did not
H. erectus had an occipital torus
More unique H. erectus cranial features
Sagittal keel
Low, long cranial vault
H. erectus appeared first in Africa
Drimolen, South Africa
~2.04 mya
Young juvenile cranium
H. erectus morphologies:
Large brain size (~538 cc)
Long, low cranial vault
Sagittal keel
Coexistence of Hominins in South Africa
Between 2.04 and 1.95 mya
Au. robustus and H. erectus at Drimolen
Au. sediba at Malapa
KNM-WT 15000
“Turkana Boy”
West Turkana, Kenya
8-11-year-old boy
~1.6 mya
H. erectus postcranial skeleton
Proportions very different from Australopiths
Long legs, narrow hips & shoulders
Some individuals are quite tall (Turkana Boy: 5’5 at 8-11 years)
Estimated adult height: 6 ft
Fully committed to terrestrial bipedalism
Endurance running?
H. erectus in Eurasia
Dmanisi, Republic of Georgia
~1.8 mya
At least 5 individuals
Associated with Oldowan tools
D2280: first hominin found at Dmanisi
Brow ridges are not as heavy as other specimens outside of Africa
Small brain sizes (546-750 cc)
D2282: second hominin found in Dmanisi
D4500: robust male skull, large teeth, small brain size
Life history of Dmanisi H. erectus
H. erectus dispersal into Asia
H. erectus in China
Zhoukoudian 1920s
40-50 individuals
Dated 800-400 kya
Avg. brain size: 1050 cc
Evidence of fire, cooking
H. erectus in SE Asia
Sites on Java demonstrate rapid dispersal into SE Asia
Mojokerto: 1.8 mya
Sangiran: 1.8-1.6 mya
H. erectus vs. H. ergaster
To “splitters,” H. erectus in Asia has different morphologies:
More massive face
Thicker skull
More pronounced brow ridges & occipital torus
Sagittal keel
Temporary coexistence of archaic human species
Surprising evidence for mid-late Pleistocene hominin diversity
Homo naledi
Rising Star Cave, South Africa
Thousands of fossils representing ~18 individuals
335-236 kya
H. erectus-like skull
The small cranial capacity (475-560 cc)
Homo floresiensis
Flores Island, Indonesia
Several individuals
700-60 kya
Very small body & brain size
Island dwarfing? Pathological modern human?
H. erectus adaptive strategies
Different toolkit
H. habilis just interested in a sharp-edge
H. erectus concerned with the shape
Able to “pre-visualize” the finished tool(s)
H. erectus at early African sites and Dmanisi (1.8-1.5 mya): Oldowan tools
~1.8 mya a new tool tradition appears: Acheulean tools
Bifaces: worked on both sides
Removal of flakes from opposing sides creates cutting-edge
Points, scrapers, cleavers
“Hand axe”
Acheulean hand axes
Butchering large animals
Scraping plant material
Digging up tubers, water
Hurling at prey?
Acheulean tools & H. erectus way of life
Along with anatomical changes, the tools inventory suggests processing (and maybe hunting)/ increasing consumption of animal protein.
If H. erectus was hunting, how was it done?
Persistence hunting: Chase down the game until exhausted
Ambush hunting: surprise large number of animals using coordinated activity
Controlled use of fire in H. erectus?
Advantages of fire:
Warmth
Cooking food
Warding off predators
More social interaction
Earliest evidence:
1.5 mya at Koobi Fora, Kenya
1.0 mya at Wonderwerk Cave, South Africa
Better evidence:
790 kya– Israel
The concentration of burned stone might be a hearth
11/4/24 EBA Ch. 12 The Origins, Evolution, and Dispersal of Modern People
The Feldhofer Cave Neandertal was the first fossil hominin to receive serious attention from scientists
Before its discovery in 1856, answers to questions about the physical characteristics and behaviors of human ancestors were highly speculative
Feldhofer Cave, Neander Valley, Germany
Workers happened upon the skeleton while removing clay deposits from the cave as part of a limestone quarrying operation.
The skull was long and low, different from those of modern humans
Similar brain size to humans
Caught the attention of Rudolf Virchow (1821-1902); started cell pathology;
Dismissed any notion that the fossils belonged to an ancestor of living humans
Long, low skulls and bowed, thick limb bones were more closely related to humans with rickets and arthritis.
Thomas Henry Huxley disagreed with Virchow and argued that this was a primitive, potentially ancestral human.
What is So Modern about Modern Humans?
Biological anthropologists define modern based on a series of distinctive anatomical and behavioral characteristics that contrast in several key ways with archaic characteristics found in earlier hominins
Modern people tend to have anatomical profiles consisting of a high and vertical forehead, a round and tall skull, a small brow ridge, a small face, small teeth, and a projecting chin
Below the neck, modern humans, both past and present, have relatively more gracile, narrower bones than their predecessors
The immediate ancestors of modern people– archaic H. sapiens–differ from modern H. sapiens
Archaic H. sapiens have:
a longer and lower skull,
a large brow ridge,
a bigger and more projecting face,
a wider nasal aperture (opening for the nose),
a more projecting occipital bone (sometimes called an occipital bun when referring to Neandertals),
larger teeth (especially the front teeth),
and no chin.
Their postcranial bones are also thicker than modern people
Modern Homo sapiens: Single Origin and Global Dispersal, or Multiple Origins and Regional Continuity?
Homo sapiens’ evolution begins with the emergence of archaic forms some 500,000-350,000 yBP
Modern H. sapiens first appeared in Africa, by 160,000 yBP, and in Europe, by about 35,000 yBP
The transition to fully modern H. sapiens was completed globally by about 25,000 yBP
Two main hypotheses have emerged to explain modern people’s origins
Out-of-Africa hypothesis: modern H. sapiens first evolved in Africa and then spread to Asia and Europe, replacing the Indigenous archaic H. sapiens population (Neandertals) living on these two continents
Multiregional Continuity hypothesis: regards the transition to modernity as having taken place regionally and without involving replacement. African archaic H. sapien gave rise to Asian modern H. sapiens, and European modern H. sapiens
Emphasizes the importance of gene flow across population boundaries–separate species of humanity never arose owing to the constant interbreeding of human groups throughout human evolution
What Do Homo sapiens Fossils Tell Us about Modern Human Origins?
Early Archaic Homo Sapiens
The earliest forms of H. sapiens emerged around 350,000 yBP
Found in Africa, Asia, and Europe
Evolution is clearly from the earlier H. erectus
From H. erectus to H. sapiens shows continued reduction in skeleton robusticity, smaller tooth size, expansion in brain size, and increasing cultural complexity.
Archaic Homo sapiens in Africa (350,000-200,000 yBP)
Kabwe, Broken Hill, Zambia
Enormous brow ridge, facial bones, and the muscle attachment areas on the back of the skull for the neck muscles are quite small compared with those of H. erectus in Africa.
Cranial capacity is about 1,300 cc.
The skull is similar in appearance to those of early archaic hominins from Europe.
H. erectus-like characteristics: a large face, a large brow ridge, and thick cranial bones
Early Archaic Homo sapiens in Asia and Europe (350,000-130,000 yBP)
Ngandong site, Java
Braincasing only, no face
Ngandong 11 has a brain size of about 1,100 cc
The skull is long and low
Compared to archaic H. erectus the skull is somewhat higher, reflecting its larger brain
Browridge is massive
Europe well-known early archaic H. sapiens
Arago, France- skull and other remains
Petralona, Greece- skull
Swanscombe, England- partial skull
Their average cranial capacity is 1,200 cc
Early Archaic Homo sapiens’ Dietary Adaptations
The earliest archaic H. sapiens had many of the same kinds of tools and material technology as their earlier H. erectus, but H. sapiens used more diverse tools to acquire and process food.
Across the group, the face, jaw, and back teeth (premolars and molars) show a general reduction in size.
C. Loring Brace hypothesized that selection for large back teeth lessened as tools became more important for processing food.
The use of the front teeth increased.
Atapuerca 5 fossil from Spain, the front teeth are worn nearly to where to gums would have been in life.
This evidence tells us that these hominins used their front teeth as a tool.
Late Archaic Homo sapiens: The Neandertals
The homies from this period show a continuation of trends begun with early Homo, especially increased brain size, reduced tooth size, and decreased skeletal robusticity
In Asia and Europe, a new pattern of variation and adaptation to cold climates occurred
Neandertal features include:
Wide and tall nasal apertures
Projecting face
Occipital bun
Long and low skull
Large front teeth (some with especially heavy wear)
Wide stocky body
Short limbs
Late Archaic Homo sapiens in Asia (125,000-40,000 yBP)
Amud Neandertals, Israel date about 55,000-40,000 yBP
Best known for the complete skeleton of an adult male
Had an enormous brain, 1,740 cc
Kebara Neandertal, Israel dates to about 60,000 yBP
Represented by the complete mandible and body skeleton
The legs and the cranium are missing
Tabun, Israel
Nearly complete female Neandertal skeleton
May be as old as 170,000 yBP
Also has a large brain
The Amud and Tabun skulls have several anatomical characteristics that are strongly similar to those of contemporary populations of late archaic H. sapiens in Europe.
Their eye orbits tend to be small and round
Their nasal openings are tall and wide
Their faces project forward
These two skulls share several modern characteristics
Such as the lack of the occipital bun and the presence of relatively small teeth
Some of the most interesting Neandertals are from the Shanidar site in northern Iraq’s Kurdistan region
The site was excavated from 1951 to 1960 and then again from 2015 to 2019
Discovered 7 adults and 3 young children
Shanidar 1- older adult male dates to at least 45,000 yBP
One of the most complete skeletons from the site
The face is typical for Neandertals- wide nasal aperture and forward facial projection.
The fracture on his upper face, well healed at the time of his death, may have been severe enough to cause blindness.
Severe arthritis in his feet might have resulted from the constant stresses of traversing difficult, mountainous terrain.
Upper incisors are severely worn, probably from his use of the front teeth as a tool for grasping and holding objects in the same or a similar way as the much earlier hominin from Atapuerca.
When he was excavated in the late 1905s his lower right arm was missing
Might suggest that the lower arm may have been either amputated or accidentally severed right above the elbow
The humerus was severely atrophied, probably owing to disuse of the arm during adult life
Late archaic H. sapiens have only recently been found in eastern Asia
Xuchang, China- crania
Shows striking similarities with western Asian Neandertals, especially with their low cranial vaults, from top to bottom, enlarged cranial capacity, and relatively thin brow ridges
Late Archaic Homo sapiens in Europe (130,000-44,000 yBP)
Krapina, Croatia 1899-1905
Highly fragmented remains
Most complete was a cranium, Krapina 3, which had typical Neandertal features:
Round eye orbits
Wide space between the eye orbits
Wide nasal aperture
Protruding midfacial region
Front teeth are the largest of any known fossil hominin
The Krapina bones display a series of distinctive cutmarks in places where ligaments were severed with stone tools; indicating that these people processed and ate animal AND HUMAN tissue.
The Krapina Neandertals were not the only ones to practice cannibalism
From at least 3 other sites in Europe–the Moula-Guercy Cave, southeastern France–El Sidron, northeastern Spain–Goyet, Belgium
Multiple individuals dating to 100,000 and 45,000 yBP display cutmark patterns very similar to those on animal remains
The cutmarks on cranial and postcranial bones involved the removal of tissue and marrow extraction
Scientists cannot explain why cannibalism was practiced, but perhaps Neandertals ate human flesh to survive severe food shortages during their occupation of Ice Age Europe
Could have been a ritual as well
The Neandertal Body Plan: Aberration or Adaptation?
La Chapelle-aux Saints
One of the most complete skeletons
First described by Marcellin Boule (1861-1942) in the early 1900s
Argued that the Neandertal cranial and postcranial traits were simply too primitive and too different from modern people’s to have provided the ancestral basis for later human evolution
Concluded that La Chapelle individual must have walked with a bent-kneed gait–as in chimpanzees that walk bipedally–and could not have been able to speak
Boule’s interpretations led to the view that Neandertals were evolutionary dead ends, replaced by the emerging modern humans and representing distant cousins of humanity
Massive nasal apertures led Boule to believe that Neandertals were not related to later humans in an evolutionary sense
Nasal features are more likely part of an adaptive complex reflecting life in cold climates during the Upper Pleistocene
One of the nose’s important functions is to transform ambient air—the air breathed in from the atmosphere–into warm, humid air
Large noses have more internal surface area, thus providing an improved means of warming and moistening the cold, dry air
Other features of Neandertal skeletons are consistent with adaptation to the cold
Infraorbital foramina–the small hole in the facial bones located beneath the eye orbits–are larger in European Neandertals than in modern people
Increase in size due to the blood vessels that tracked through them having been quite large
Larger blood vessels may have allowed greater blood flow to the face, preventing exposed facial surfaces from freezing
The shape of the Neandertal body trunk and the length of the arms and legs
Compared with Humans–European Neanderthals were stocky–the body was short, wide and deep
This is supported by Bergmann’s and Allen’s rules (animals that live in cold climates are larger than animals that live in hot climates
Neandertal Hunting: Inefficient or Successful?
Neandertals are normally viewed as dumb and hard-headed but they demonstrate that they are not as mentally deficient.
Neandertals were associated with the culture known as Mousterian or Middle Paleolithic- the stone tool culture in which Neandertals produced tools using the Levallois technique.
Culture lasted from about 300,000 to 30,000 yBP, including a complex and distinctive type of flaking involved the Levallois technique- a distinctive method of stone tool production used during the Middle Paleolithic, in which the core was prepared and flakes removed from the surface before the final tool was detached from the core.
One way to measure hunting success is to determine how much meat Neandertals ate.
The bones of butchered animals are abundant in Neandertal habitation sites, indicating that Neandertals hunted the animals and processed the carcasses for food.
To find out how important meat was in Neandertal’s diet, anthropologists have applied the powerful tools of bone chemistry and stable isotope analysis.
Measurement of stable isotopes of both nitrogen and carbon in the bones of Neanderthals–from Scladina Cave (Belgium), Vindiji Cave (Croatia), and Marillac (France)--indicates that Neanderthals ate lots of meat, at or nearly at the level of carnivores living at the same time and place.
Tooth calculus- the hard substance that your dental hygienist periodically scrapes off your teeth, contains microscopic residue of plant and other food remains
This showed they ate a diversity of plants, including mushrooms, moss, and pine nuts; some foods were cooked.
These tests also suggest they consumed some of these plants for medicinal purposes.
Evidence of a tasting chemical that is a well-known appetite suppressant
Another indicator of their effective adaptation is the measurement of stress levels.
Debbie Guatelli-Steinberg found that enamel hypoplasias, the stress markers in teeth that reflect growth disruption due to poor diets or poor health, are present in Neandertalks but at a frequency no different from that of modern humans.
Neandertals Buried Their Dead
A significant number of fossils have been found in puts
Excavation of some Neandertal sites in Europe and Western Asia has shown that puts were dug, corpses were placed in the pits, and the pits were filled in
The hand and arms were in flexed (fetal-oriented) postures
The hands and arms were carefully positioned, and the bodies were typically on their sides or backs
They represented purposeful symbolic behavior linking those who died and those who were living
Neandertals Talked
In the 1970s, the American linguist Philip Lieberman and the American anatomist Edmund Crelin restructured the Neandertal vocal tract.
Their reconstruction resembled a modern newborn infant’s vocal tract, they concluded that, like human babies, Neanderthals could not express the full range of sounds necessary for articulate speech.
Their skulls also lacked the anatomical soft tissue to determine whether they talked.
The Kebara Neandertal skeleton included a hyoid bone, a part of the neck that can survive ancient settings.
Various muscles and ligaments attach it to the skull, mandible, tongue, larynx, and pharynx, collectively producing speech.
From the study of microscopic wear patterns on the surfaces of incisors and canines, especially the study of the relationship with brain laterality
Early Modern Homo Sapiens
Modern H. sapiens from the Upper Pleistocene are represented in the fossil record throughout Africa, Asia, and Europe.
Later in this period, they spread into regions with extreme environments, such as the Arctic tundra of Siberia in northern Asia.
Timeline for Major Upper Paleolithic Cultures of Europe
The Aurignacian (45,000-30,000 yBP)
Associated with the first anatomically modern humans in Europe
The Gravettian (30,000-20,000 yBP)
The Perogordian in France
Earliest art, in the form of carved figurines
Lagar Velho burial in Portugal
The Solutrean (21,000-17,000 yBP)
France and Spain during the last glacial peak
Made very fine stone points
The Magdalenian (17,000-12,000 yBP)
Successful hunters of reindeer and horses
Spread out across Europe as conditions improved at the end of the Ice Age
Made many of the spectacular paintings and carvings
Early Modern Homo sapiens in Africa (200,000-6,000 yBP)
African record for early H. sapiens is especially important because it includes the earliest evidence of modern people’s anatomical characteristics
Crucially important fossil hominins from this time come from the Herto, Aduma, and Bouri sites in Ethiopia’s Middle Awash Valley from and from Omo in southern Ethiopia
Herto: partial skulls of two adults and a child, dating to 160,000-154,000 yBP- show cranial capacity of about 1,450 cc, close to the average for modern humans
Many of the fossils show a tall cranium, a vertical forehead, smaller brow ridges, a smaller nose, and a nonprojecting face
The First Modern Humans: Biology and Behavior
Southern Africa–Klasies River Mouth Cave and Hofmeyr–provide important information about early modern H. sapiens that date to after 100,000 yBP
Anthropologists have documented the presence of a chin, a distinctively modern characteristic, that dates to at least 90,000 yBp
African hominins, although modern, retained some robusticity
Lothagam, Kenya: dating to the Holocene (ca. 9,000-6,000 yBP) are robust compared with those of living East Africans’
Early Modern Homo sapiens in Asia (100,000-18,000 yBP)
The earliest modern H. sapiens in Asia are best represented by fossils from western Asia, from the same region as Amud and Kebara Neandertalks in Israel
90,000-year-old remains from Skhul have distinctively modern characteristics, suggesting that the people living there were modern H. sapiens
On the Margin of Modernity in Southeast Asia: Homo floresiensis and Homo iuzonensis (100,000-50,000 yBP)
Liang Bua Cave, Flores, Indonesia
Dubbed “hobbit” because of its tiny brain (400 cc) and skull, only stood 3.3 ft
Some say it can’t possibly relate to the hominin of that time and others think the person might have had microcephaly: a condition in which the cranium is abnormally small and the brain is underdeveloped
Callao Cave, Philippines- hand and foot phalanges and teeth; dating 67,000 and 50,000 yBP
Called Homo luzonensis: has extraordinarily small teeth, and its hand and foot phalanges were distinctively curved
Reflects local adaptation to the considerable climbing required in this arboreal environment
Early Modern Homo sapiens in Europe (35,000-15,000 yBP)
Pestera cu Oase, Romania; 35,000 yBP- very reduced brow ridges and a generally gracile appearance
Mladec Predmosti and Dolni Vestonice, Czech Republic; dating to 35,000-26,000 yBP- show remarkable variation, including a mix of Neandertal characteristics in some (occipital bun, low skull, large brow ridges, large front teeth, and thick bone) and modern characteristics
Modern Behavioral and Cultural Transitions
Fishing and the use of aquatic resources as an important part of the diet are first documented at Katanda, Democratic Republic of the Congo; 75,000 yBP
Specialized kinds of hunting
Wider employment of raw materials (bone) for producing tools
Advanced blade technology
Trade
Symbolic behavior and cognitive advancement were also present in Europe
Ancient DNA: Interbreeding Between Neandertals and Early Modern People?
Analysis of mitochondrial DNA offers potential clues about the origins of modern people
Comparisons of mtDNA from more than a dozen Neandertal skeletons–from Engis and Scladina in Belgium and other places–with that of early modern humans and living humans show similarity among Neandertals and dissimilarity between Neandertals and modern humans
This resulted in there was no gene flow occurring between Neandertals and modern humans during the later Pleioscene
Modern Human’s Other Migrations: Colonization of Australia, the Pacific, and the Americas
After 50,000 yBP populations expanded from the southeastern fringes of Asia to Australia, eventually fanning out from west to east across the hundreds of islands that dot the Pacific Ocean
In the last few millennia of the Pleisocene, humans spread throughout the Americas
These migrations represent adaptive radiations involving movement and adaption to new settings
What motivated these early modern people to move?
Population increase
Disappearance of food resources
Increased competition with neighbors for remaining resources
Climate deterioration
Down Under and Beyond: The Australian and Pacific Migration
Late Pleistocene, sea levels were considerably lower than they are today, by as much as 90 m (295 ft), exposing land surfaces now submerged by water and making them available for huma occupation and movement between landmasses
The earliest human biological record in Australia is from Lake Mungo, in southeastern Australia, dating about 40,000 yBP
Two skulls; adult male and adult female
Skulls are high and have rounded foreheads with small browridges
Shared features with H. erectus and later Indonesian hominins
These anatomica similarities suggest a common genetic origin, thereby indicating regional continuity of human populations and their biological evolution
Arrival in The Western Hemisphere: The First Americans
Ales Hrdlicka- American biological anthropologist
Noted similarity in the shaped of the upper incisors of East Asian and Native American people, past and present
Shovel-shaped incisors: a dental trait, commonly found among Native Americans and Asians, in which the incisors’ posterior aspect has varying degrees of concavity
America’s founding populations were adapted to cold, dry climates
Indicated by the northeastern Asian origin
Paleoindians: the earliest hominin inhabitants of the Americas; they likely migrated from Asia and are associated with the Clovis and Folsom stone tool cultures in North America and comparable tools in South America
Clovis: the earliest Native American (“Paleoindian”) culture of North America; technology known for large, fluted, bifacial stone projectile points used as spear points for big-game hunting
Folsom: Early Native American (immediately after Clovis) culture of North America; technology known for large, fluted, bifacial projectile points used as spear points for big-game hunting
All best known for hunting megafauna: large game animals hunted by pre-Holocene and early Holocene humans
Mammoth, steppe bison, reindeer (caribou)
Pleistocene megafauna throughout the Americas became extinct by the Early Holocene, and some evidence suggests that in the Americas and Australia, humans hunted these large animals to extinction
Seems unlikely because of the small number of humans
More likely due to climate change at the end of the Pleistocene and the changes in habitats frequently by large mammals
Continuity in genes has been demonstrated between Paleoindians and later Native Americans, there were distinctive anatomical changes between them, most of which reflect foods consumed
Craniofacial morphology
Paleoindians: long and narrow skulls,robust faces, large attachment areas fo the masticatory muscles
Native Americans: short, round skulls, and gracile faces
11/7/24 Archaic Homo sapiens and Neandertals
The Middle Pleistocene
~800-150 kya
The climate is colder and more variable than today
Northern Europe periodically covered by ice sheets
Short interglacial periods
Middle Pleistocene Hominins
Homo erectus disappearing (~300,000 ya)
A hominin with more derived traits appears:
Archaic Homo sapiens
H. erectus-like traits
Long cranial vault
Thick cranial bones
Heavy, arched brow ridges
Large faces
Occipital torus
Receding chin
Derived (human-like) traits
Increased cranial capacity (1000-1400 cc)
Slightly taller cranial vault
Reduced prognathism
Smaller cheek teeth
Archaic H. sapiens in Africa
Bodo, Ethiopia
Earliest African specimen
600 kya
Evidence of defleshing, maybe
Kabwe, Zambia
324-274 kya
Very large brow ridges
Reduced face & occipital region
These crania have a mix of H. erectus and modern features
Cranial capacities
~1300 cc
Archaic H. sapiens in Europe
Example: “Sima de los Huesos”
Cave site, Atapuerca, Spain
~430,000 ya
~30 individuals
Mortuary site?
Early Neandertal morphologies?
Improved tool technology
Middle Pleistocene ➡” Prepared core” tech
Levallois technique
Flakes removed from edges and top of stone
Controls flake size and shape; ⬆cutting surface
Evidence for big-game hunting
Schoeningen, Germany
Preserved wooden spears (7 ft long)
400,000 ya
Associated with butchered remains of horses, hand axes
Gradually, a group of archaic Homo sapiens became increasingly adapted to glacial conditions in Eurasia
The Neandertals
Neandertals appear ~200-150 kya
Extreme environmental fluctuations
Cooling trend
Frigid grassland
Many large mammals
The first recognized non-modern human fossil
Neander Valley, Germany 1856
Limestone quarry
Discoveredodd-looking skullcap, partial skeleton
Dated to around 40 kya
Neandertal Cranial Morphology
Long, low vault
Occipital bun
Mid-facial prognathism
Chin absent
Large cranial capacity
Average: ~1500 cc
Compare to ~1350 in living humans
Double-arched brow ridge
Large, wide nasal aperture
Unique dental traits:
Taurodont molars- deeper tooth pulp under enamel
Teeth as tools
Retromolar space- space between teeth and back gums
Postcranial morphology
Short and stocky
Broad trunk
Thick long bones with/ large joints and extensive muscle attachments
Short forearms & lower legs
Cold adapted?
Bergmann’s Rule: bigger body retains more heat
Allen’s Rule: short limbs better in cold climates
Dictionary results for Neandertal:
N. an unenlightened or ignorant person; barbarian
Adj. primitive, unenlightened; culturally or intellectually backward
La Chapelle-aux-Saints
First relatively complete Neandertal skeleton
An older adult male (~40)
Date: 40,000 ya
Reconstructed by paleontologist Marcellin Boule
Boule’s Interpretation:
Low vault + large brow ridge = ape-like and unintelligent
Curved spine, stooped stance
Bent kneed posture
Sloping neck with head jutting forward
Grasping feet
More recent examination of the “Old Man”
“Slouching posture” is the result of severe osteoarthritis
No evidence that the toe was opposable
Many other pathologies
Neandertals led tough lives
Shanidar Cave, Iraq
10 individuals
40-50,000 ya
Traumatic injuries
Shanidar 1
Adult male (30s-40s)
Injuries:
A crushing injury the to left eye orbit may have blinded him
R. hand & forearm missing, possibly amputated
R. upper arm atrophied
Atrophied right leg
Fractured right metatarsal
Neandertal Material Culture
Mousterian tools
Levallois prepared a core technique
Many types:
Cutters, scrapers, points
Advantages: thin, light, specialized for tasks, could be halved
Use of Fire
Bruniquel Cave, France
Hearths in Portugal ~ 60kya
Pitch for hafted weapons
Many sites with burned, crushed bones
Cannibalism
Symbolic Expression
Bruniquel Cave, France
176 kya
Complex spatial organization
Deep cave occupation
Symbolic or ritual behavior?
Domestic occupation?
Refuge?
Cave Art (Spain)
At least 64.8 kya
Maltravieso (Extremadura): hand stencil
La Pasiega (Cantabria): array of red lines
Ardales (Andalucia): red-painted cave formation
Symbolic Expression & Burials
Burial or dead
Ceremonial?
Practical: keep scavengers away?
Personal adornment
Necklaces
Body pigmentation
Migration & Co-occupation?
Israeli Cave sites:
Tabun, Kebara, Amud: Neandertals from 170-40 kya
Skhul and Qafzeh: modern humans by 110-90 kya
Alternating use of these sites? Co-occupation?
Neandertals disappeared about 30,000 years ago
…but are they gone entirely?
Ancient DNA evidence:
Neandertal genes exist in modern populations
1-4% of genomes among Europeans and Asians
Recently also been detected in African groups
Changing perceptions of Neanderthals, from ape-like brutes to essentially human
11/11/24 The Emergence of Anatomically Modern Humans
Famous Discovery
Cro-Magnon, France
1868
Rock shelter; at least 5 individuals
Discovered by railroad workers
27,000 ya
Modern Homo sapiens Cranial Morphology
Rounded cranium
Vertical forehead
Reduced browridges
Reduced prognathism
Small teeth & jaws
Definite chin
Avg. cranial capacity: 1500 cc
Canine fossa: depression under cheek bones prominent in modern humans and not neandertals
Anatomical Characteristics of Homo sapiens
Reduced robusticity
More gracile cranial & postcranial skeletons
Why? Diet has a big impact on why modern humans are more reduced over all compared to neandertals. More tools, cooked food, less physical fighting and more weapons, more sophisticated overall, longer and leaner because modern humans appeared first in africa
When & where did H. sapiens appear?
Traditionally, there were two groups of hypotheses of modern human origins:
Replacement models (“Out of africa”)
Modern H. sapiens evolved in Africa as a new species
Migrated out of Africa and replaced archaic populations
Interbreeding between archaic & modern H. sapiens was rare or nonexistent
Multiregional models (regional continuity)
Modern H. sapiens arose from archaic populations in Africa, Europe, & Asia
Regional populations were always connected by gene flow during the transition to modern humans
No single origin, no separate species, no replacement
The Evidence for Modern Human Origins
Bones, stones, and genomes test
The fossil evidence
At present, the oldest modern human fossils come from Africa
Jebel Irhoud, Morocco
Cave site
At least 5 individuals
Lots of stone tools
~300 kya
Omo, Ethiopia
Two individuals
One is more modern looking
~230 kya
Earliest modern H. sapiens outside of Africa?
Mt. Carmel, Israel
Misliya Cave, Israel 177-194 kya
Europe
Moderns apparently arrived relatively late
Romania:
Pestera cu Oase
~35 kya
Czech Republic:
Mladec, Predmosti, Dolni Vestonice
35-26 kya
Genetic evidence Part 1: Genetic variation in living people
Goal: identify the most recent common ancestor (“MRCA”)
mtDNA studies
Deepest lineages in africa
All non-african groups are a subset of african lineages
Estimates of MRCA: less than 200,000 years ago
Y-chromosome studies
Deepest lineages in Africa
MRCA: 100-180,000 years ago
Modern african populations have the most genetic diversity
Other portions of nuclear genome
Some older estimates for MRCA
Genetic Evidence Part 11: Ancient DNA
Neandertal myDNA is outside the range of variation for DNA from modern human fossils:
MRCA for neandertals and humans?
myDNA: 365,000-853,000 ya
Nuclear: 270,000-440,000 ya
But some interbreeding occurred, including with denisovans: newer branch of hominins that may have interbreeded with modern humans; found in Asia
Summary: the genetic evidence
Modern H. sapiens evolved in Africa ~200,000+ years ago
Most humans today descended from populations than left Africa ~60 kya
Interbred with neandertals and denisovans as they expanded into Europe & Asia
Out of Africa? Multiregional continuity? Other?
The extremes of both models are rejected
Earliest AMH fossils in Africa
Transitional forms in Africa
BUT: gene flow between modern & archaic humans definetly occured
A middle ground:
Assimilation Model
Modern H. sapiens appeared first in Africa
Migrated out & did exchange genes with archaics
No biological species-level difference between archaic and modern humans
Upper Paleolithic culture
Around 40-50 kya: flourishing of new technology and art
More complex tools
Hunting and foraging; exploiting new resources
Increased symbolic expression
Cave art and portable art
carved/engraved tools and other objects, personal adornment
Venus figurines
Exaggerated female figures
Cave art
Lascaux, france
Aurochs (extinct ox)
Horses
Oldest figurative art? Sulawesi, Indonesia
Rock art depicting a hunting scene 43.9 kya
Technological advances
Blade tools: flakes at least 2x as long as wide
Microliths:
Small points with a flat back
Hafted onto spears
Spear throwers (atlatls)
Tools made from bone, ivory, antler
More symbolic Epxression
South Africa:
Engraved ostrich shells from Diepkloopf Rock Shelter (60kya)
Engraved red ochre from Blombos Cave (77kya)
Also used in burials
Burials
Caves and open air sites
Elaboration of graves
Careful, deliberate body placement
Grave goods, items of personal adornment
Elaborate garments, decorations
EX. Double burial from Sungir, Russia
11/14/24 Global Dispersal of Anatomically Modern Humans
Australia & The Americas
Migration into Australia
Despite lower sea levels, Australia was probably separated from the nearest land mass by ~40-50 miles
Greater Australia: combined land mass of New Guinea and Australia
Lake Mungo
Stone tools ~50 kya
Burials (~40-42 kya)
Partial cremation of a young female
Old male covered with red ochre
Evidence of watercraft, and occupation sites cannot be investigated because it is submerged/destroyed
The Americas
Clovis culture
Fluted projectile points
Widespread around 13 kya
Once considered the oldest in the Americas
Evidence for much earlier human presence
Footprints in White Sands National Park, NM
~23-21 kya
Early Human Remains in North America
Kennewick Man
Washington State (8,400-9,200 ya)
“Naia” from Hoyo Negro
Yucatan, Mexico (11,750-12,900 ya)
11/14/24 EBA Ch. 13 Our Past 10,000 Years
The Agricultural Revolution: New Foods, New Adaptations, New Challenges
Up until roughly 10,000 yBP, humans acquired all their food through hunting and gathering
Late Pleistocene, began intensively exploiting fish and shellfish in oceans, lakes, and streams
In the final centuries of that epoch, at the ket environmental transition from the Pleistocene’s cold and dry climate to the Holocene’s warm and wet environment, people began to control the growth cycle of animals and plants through a process called Domestication: the process of converting wild animals or wild plants into forms that humans can care for and cultivate
This dramatic change is associated with the period called the Neolithic
Many diseases in humans today are linked in one way or another to this extraordinary change in lifeway
The transition from foraging to farming laid the foundation for population size to increase to its current remarkable level, resulting in an increasingly crowded world
Humans practiced artificial selection, as opposed to natural selection
The resulting changes proved very deleterious for some of the species being domesticated
Wheat- the part holding all the edible sections is called the rachis, and at some point, humans selected wheat with a hard rachis for storage and later consumption
After many generations, the grain was unable to reproduce itself because humans had selected plants that could not reproduce without human involvement
At least two factors probably brought about this agricultural revolution:
The environment changed radically, going from cooler, drier, and highly variable during the very late Pleistocene to warmer, wetter, and more stable during the Holocene, beginning around 10,000-12,000 yBP
Almost everywhere, agriculture was developing and the human population was increasing
Population Pressure
Changes in climate and ecology would not have resulted in plant and animal domestication, of course, without people
Catalhoyuk, Turkey
The beginning of agriculture coincided with the increase in the number and especially the sizes of villages
Regional Variation
Plant domestication started in at least 11 independent regions around the world
The practice spread through a process of diffusion in some areas and through the movement of agricultural people in others
Eventually, every inhabitable continent, except Australia saw the change
American Midwest- native seed crops–goosefoot, sump weed, and sunflowers–were farmed about 6,000-1,000 yBP
Later corn replaced these crops, probably owing to its greater productivity and potential for feeding more people than before
Archaeological evidence and genetic studies of domesticated plants indicate that before becoming agricultural at the end of the Pleistocene, people living in southwestern Asia began to intensively harvest the grains of wheat’s and barley’s wild ancestors
Within 1,00 or so years after this combined practice of exploiting wild grans and foraging, sometime around 11,500 yBp people began to manipulate the growth cycles of plants
The archaeological record suggests that farming first started in southwestern Asia, specifically in modern-day Turkey around 10,500 yBP
Early agricultural communities had sprung up along a vast swath extending from the eastern side of the Mediterranean across an arch-shaped zone of grasslands and open woodlands known as the Fertile Crescent
Jericho and Catalhoyuk grew from tiny villages consisting of only a few huts into the first cities, containing several or more thousands of people living in close, cramped settings
Plant domestication was nearly as early in China (millet at 11,000 yBP and rice at 9,200 yBP) as in southwestern Asia
Agriculture likely developed in China earlier than that, perhaps by several thousand years
Other early domesticated plants are from
Mexico (bottle gourds, 10,000 yBP; corn, 9,000 yBP)
New Guinea (taro and banana trees, 7,000 yBP)
Eastern North America (squash, sunflowers, and goosefoot, 6,000 yBP)
South America (yams, 6,000 yBP; sweet potatoes, 4,500 yBP; potato, 7,000 yBP)
Africa south of the Sahara Desert (sorghum and yams, 4,500 yBP)
Like most other technological innovations, agriculture spread by diffusion out of the primary centers, often for very long distances
Corn: spread from Mexico to the American Southwest
Eventually, it spread across North America and reached the Atlantic coast by about 1,000 yBP
Diffusion of agriculture consists of both far western Asia and Europe
Southwestern Adia: domestication of wheat and barley spread from Greece by 8,000-7,000 yBP, then to Europe
Agriculture spread through cultural contact and the exchange of knowledge
Analyses of ancient DNA of Neolithic skeletons in western Anatolia (modern Turkey) and in Europe, revealed sharing significant elements of the genome
The genetic similarities in neolithic Anatolians and Europeans signal substantial gene flow from Anatolia to Europe
Indicates the movement of early farmers from Western Asia to Europe which caused genetic diversity seen today in Europe
Animals were also domesticated around the world, beginning with dogs between 30,000 and 15,000 or so years ago
8,000 yBP- goats, sheep, cattle, and pigs were domesticated
Important food sources in Asia and Europe but domesticated plants likely provided the majority of calories and were far more fundamental to the growing human populations’ survival at the regional and the global scale
Neolithic Southwest Asians suggested that animal husbandry was highly labor-intensive and resource-expensive, but also, before domestication, hunting was a social act and was a central element of community life
Survival and Growth
Domestication fueled humans’ remarkable population growth in the Holocene, and it formed the foundation for the rise of complex societies, cities, and increasingly sophisticated technology
Archaeologists learned that domesticated plants served as both a food staple and a source of drink, alcoholic drinks
China: chemical analysis of residue inside ceramic vessels shows that perhaps as early as 8,000 yBP, grapes, and rice were fermented for wine
The arrival of European explorers and colonists in the Americas had an enormous impact on the kinds of domesticated plants consumed by world populations
EX. corn: taken back to Europe by early explorers
By the middle of the 1500s’ its use as good had spread widely, and it had become an important part of diets, especially in Africa
Today, domesticated plants remain crucially important for sustaining human populations
⅔ of calorie and protein intake comes from the key cereal grains domesticated in the earlier Holocene
Wheat, barley, corn, and rice
Rice accounts for half the food consumed by 1.7 billion people in the world whose diets include rie and for more than 20% of all calories consumed by humans today
Rice and these other cereal grains are now aptly called superfoods
Agriculture: An Adaptive Trade-Off
Writing, art, business, technology, and just about every other feature of modern life came about because of agriculture
The rise of complex societies, civilizations, and technologically sophisticated ways of acquiring both food and other resources also brought about several profound, and largely negative, consequences for humankind
Population Growth
Neolithic demographic transition: The most visible characteristic associated with the shift from foraging to farming is the increase in population size
The shift from a low birth rate in hunter-gatherers to a high birth rate in farmers resulted in a rapid increase in the world’s population
As a result; breastfeeding was shortened
The availability of grains cooked into soft mushes and fed to infants made it possible to wean infants from breast milk earlier in their lives
The world population around 10,000 yBP was probably no more than 10 million people
By 2,000 yBP, the population likely increase to 250 million or 300 million
By AD 1850, the population had increased to 1 billion, and today approaches 8 billion
Increased population leads to competition for resources
As towns and cities began to compete for increasingly limited resources, organized warfare developed
The level of violence among pre-Holocene hominins was nothing compared with that of the early civilizations in Southwest Asia, Central America, and South America or with the medieval wars in Europe, where thousands of people were killed in organized warfare and interpersonal conflict
Environmental Degradation
The consequences of environmental degradation, like those of extreme population growth, are well documented by historians and ecologists for recent human history
Dense settlement based on agrarian economies has contributed to soil erosion, making it increasingly difficult to produce food
Around 8,000 yBP, several large towns in the eastern Mediterranean were abandoned, probably due mostly to a period of climate drying
Overgrazing of livestock resulted in damaging erosion
The amount of fuel, especially wood, needed to support the community resulted in the destruction of native vegetation and the desiccation of landscapes
The recent collapse of coastal ecosystems worldwide clearly had its start in overfishing–especially of large vertebrates (whales) and shellfish–beginning thousands of years ago
It is predicted that if left unchecked, the population will outstrip the arable land available to produce the plants and animals consumed by humans
How Did Agriculture Affect Human Biology?
Many think that humans stopped evolving biologically once they became modern in the Upper Paleolithic
The Changing Face of Humanity
The foods we eat and how they are prepared tremendously influence our biology, our health, and our physical appearance
Throughout human evolution after the australopithecines, the face and jaws have continuously reduced in size and robusticity, reflecting a general decrease in the demand placed on the jaws and teeth as culture became increasingly complex and foodstuffs changed
This change came from eating soft foods, such as cooked cereal grains
There are two hypotheses to explain why the human skull changed shape in Nubia during the past 10,000 years, anthropologists in the 1800s and most of the 1900s offered an explanation based on old concepts of race
1st: they believed that the change occurred because short-headed people invaded territory occupied by long-headed people
Early anthropologists saw head shape as unchanging and essentially a diagnostic racial marker
Masticatory-functional hypothesis: The change in skull form represents a response to decreased demands on the chewing muscles–temporalis and masseter–as people shifted from eating hard-textured wild foods to eating soft-textured agricultural foods, such as millet
Building a new physique: agriculture’s changes to workload and activity
One major debate in anthropology concerns the extent to which the agricultural revolution improved the quality of human life, including the workload
Robert Braidwood (1907-2003)- characterized the lifestyle of a typical hunter-gatherer as a savage’s existence, and a very tough one, following animals just to kill them to eat, or moving from one berry patch to another.
There is another theory that they may have worked hard but still had time for leisure
Biomechanics provides enormous insight into the evolution of the body below the neck workload and other activity
Borrowing from how engineers measure the strength of building materials–such as I beams used in the construction of a bridge or of a building–biological anthropologists have developed a means for assessing the robusticity of bone cross-sections
Material located farther away from an axis running down the center of the bone is stronger than material placed closer to the axis
Bone comparisons from hunter-gatherers to later agriculturalists to modern people show a remarkable decline in size
Measurement involves first getting a good image of the bone’s cross-section
This might mean cutting the bone physically to expose the cross-section, usually in the mid-diaphysis
If cutting is impossible a cross-section can be created by taking a CT scan of the bone
The biological anthropologist traces the bone's outer and inner perimeter with an electronic stylus hooked up the a computer loaded with engineering software that automatically calculates bone strength properties called second moments of area
Health and the Agricultural Revolution
Population crowding and infectious disease
Humans began to live in conditions crowded and unsanitary enough to support pathogens and their successful evolution
Periosteal reaction: an inflammatory response of a bone’s outer covering due to bacterial infection or trauma
Often caused by localized infections, like staph
In the American Midwest and Southeast, tibias are swollen and bowed, while crania have a distinctive uneven, pitted texture
Both are caused by a group of diseases called treponematoses- which includes venereal syphilis, nonvenereal syphilis, and yaws
The pattern of bone changes in the New World before the late 1400s suggests the presence of nonvenereal syphilis, one passed not by sexual contact but by casual contacts, like a mother holding her child
Tuberculosis was seen all over the world including the New World, Old World, and Australia
The Consequence of Declining Nutrition: Tooth Decay
Because domesticated plants are carbohydrates, they cause cavities or dental caries
A process in which the natural bacteria in your mouth–common culprits are streptococcus mutans and lactobacillus acidophilus–digest the carbohydrates there
There were no dentists back then so people with cavities either let the teeth fall out or died due to infection
Different domesticated plants promote tooth decay at varying rates
Rice doesn’t seem to cause it to the same extent as other plants
corn causes considerably
Nutritional Consequences Due to Missing Nutrients: Reduced Growth and Abnormal Development
Dietary reconstructions of past societies by archaeologists and studies of living agrarian populations in different settings indicate that the diets of agriculturalists tend to overemphasize one plant or a couple of them
Rice in Asia, wheat in Europe, corn in the Americas, and millet or sorghum in Africa
Many groups received poor nutrition from an increasingly narrow range of food
If it is so bad for you, why farm?
The key components of evolution are survival to the reproductive years and producing of offspring
Because women were settled and not spending time moving about the landscape, they could bear children more frequently
It is possible that a population with a reduced quality of life, as a result of disease and other negative health effects associated with an agricultural lifestyle, might still have very high fertility
11/18/24 Biological Changes with Agriculture
End of Pleistocene: Climate Stabilizes
Until ~12 kya, all humans were hunter-gatherers
Highly mobile groups
Small population sizes
Subsisting on local resources
Foraging: generalized, immediate use
Collecting: staple foods, storage
Plant food processing & storage
Grinding wild grain staples (oats, barley) into meal:
Italy (32 kya)
Ohalo, Israel (23 kya)
Contemporaneous hearths contain roasted seeds, phytoliths
Plant Domesticates Appear Around 12-11 kya
How/Why Did This Happen?
Habitat modification; artificial selection
Individual animals or plants are chosen based on desired traits
Agricultural transition is a watershed moment
Huge adaptive shifts:
Raising animals and growing plants
Diets fundamentally change
Become more sedentary
Sedentism & Population Growth & Disease
More evidence for specific infections in large populations after 10,000 ya
Tuberculosis
Treponemal diseases (e.g. syphilis)
Periosteal reactions: evidence of non-specific infection or possibly trauma
Increased evidence for interpersonal violence and organized warfare
Victims of a 9th century BC battle in Iran
Cranial depressed fracture 12th century AD Greece
Nutritional Consequences of Agriculture
Most pre-agricultural diets: high nutrient density, variety
High protein
Low saturated fat (lean wild game)
Complex carbs
High fiber
Low sodium
Intensive agriculture reduces the variety
Corn:
Deficient in many essential amino acids
Contains phytates (inhibit iron absorption)
Wheat: very little iron
Rice: deficient in protein, inhibits vitamin A absorption
Skeletal evidence of nutritional deficiency
Cribra orbitals
Porotic hyperostosis
Lesions like cribra orbitalia and porotic hyperostosis can be caused by:
Anemia (insufficient red blood cells)
Deficiencies or iron, folate, vitamin B12
Scurvy (vitamin C deficiency)
Rickets (vitamin D deficiency)
In many contexts, these conditions are rare before 10,000 ya
Dental evidence of developmental disruption
Enamel hypoplasias
Grooves, pits, patches of missing tooth enamel
Reflect enamel growth disruption
Malnutrition or infections
Other consequences of a less varied diet
More processed carbohydrates = more tooth decay
Other biological changes in agriculture
Craniofacial changes
Decline in bone strength
Decrease in osteoarthritis
Agriculture: An Adaptive trade-off
Advantages
Predictability of food sources
Mitigate seasonal shortages through surplus & storage
Supports more people
Enabled the rise of complex societies
Disadvantages
Dependence on fewer food sources
Nutritional problems
Crowded conditions
Social stratification
Conflict over resources
Environmental degradation
11/21/24 Introduction to Human Osteology
Ethical treatment of human remains
Skeletal remains are people, not objects
Working with human remains:
Do qualified experts undertake a privilege
Is subject to federal & state law
It is performed with permission from descendant communities
Human remains from historic/prehistoric contexts in the US are subject to NAGPRA
Why Study Bones?
Bones and teeth are resistant to decay
Contains information on life history
Survival; way of life
Life stages, growth & development
Individual life histories
What is Bone?
A network of cells and a neurovascular system embedded in a protein/mineral matrix
A dynamic, living tissue
What is bone made of?
Organic component (~25%):
Primarily collagen (protein)
Arranged in fibers; elastic
Inorganic component (~60%):
Hydroxyapatite (mineral)
Primarily calcium & phosphates
Hard property
Water (~15%)
The function of Bones:
Encasement and protection
Support and movement
Production of blood cells
Fat storage
Mineral reservoir
E.g. calcium & phosphate
Bones have features
Projections
Bumps or ridges that stick out from bone surface
E.g. mastoid process
Depressions, fossae, grooves
Indentations or furrows on bone surface
E.g. mandibular fossa
Foramina & canals
Holes or channels in bone
E.g. foramen magnum
Skeletal variation
The morphology of bones & teeth varies from person to person
Allows osteologists to estimate age, sex, population affinity, stature, pathologies, activity patterns, etc.
Osteology overview
206 bones in adults
Axial Skeleton
Skull and thorax (vertebrae, sacrum, ribs, sternum)
Appendicular skeleton
Shoulder & pelvic girdles, limbs
skull= cranium + mandible
28 bones including ear ossicles
Postcranial axial skeleton
Hyoid
Vertebrae (24 total)
Cervical (7)
Thoracic (12)
Lumbar (5)
Sacrum
Coccyx
Ribs
24 total (12/side)
Sternum
Upper appendicular skeleton
Shoulder girdle
Clavicle & scapula
Upper arm
Humerus
Lower arm
Radius and ulna
Hand
Carpals, metacarpals, phalanges
Lower appendicular skeleton
Pelvic girdle
Os coxae (composed of ilium, ischium, & pubis)
Upper leg
Femur and patella
Lower leg
Tibia and fibula
Foot
Tarsals, metatarsals, and phalanges
11/25/24 Forensic Anthropology
What is Forensic Anthropology?
Application of methods from anthropology & skeletal biology to the investigation of death
Forensic Anthropologists are biological anthropologists who:
Have advanced training in human osteology
Are experts in human skeletal variation
Perform mediolegal services as a consultant to medical examiner/coroner
Contributions to the Death Investigation:
Search & recovery of human remains
Human vs. non-human
Forensic significance
Time since death
Skeletal trauma analysis
Personal identification
Biological profile
Positive ID
Forensic Anthropology has Legal Implications
You may be asked to testify in court as an expert witness
ABFA (1977)
NIST OSAC anthropology subcommittee
Daubert v. Merrell-Dow (1993)
Applications of FA
State and local law enforcement
Medical examiner’s offices
University forensic anthropology labs
Federal government
US military
Office of the armed forces medical examiner (OAFME)
Defense POW/MIA accounting agency (DPAA)
National transportation safety board (NTSB)
Humanitarian assistance
Human rights violations
Mass disasters
Examples of Forensic Anthropology Roles/Contributions
Human vs. non-human
The biological profile
Estimation of:
Biological sex
Pelvic bone
Women have bigger hips for childbirth
Male: narrow and short
Female: wide and long
Skull
Supraorbital ridge/glabella
Supraorbital margins
Nuchal crest
Mastoid process
Age at death
Juvelines
Dental formation
Appearance & fusion of femoral epiphyses
Adults
Pubic symphysis-where the two pelvic bones meet at the front of the body
Is billowing present?- ridges against where the bones meet (teens)
Is the symphyseal rim formed? (ridges go away; 30-40)
Is the symphysis porotic? Breaks down and becomes brittle
Population affinity
Craniometric analysis: take images of skull and compare measurements to ancestral samples
Ancestry
Stature (height)
Skeletal Trauma Analysis
Importance to death investigation:
Mechanism of trauma
Blunt force
Relatively slow loading
Relatively large area
Can leave tool impressions
High-velocity projectile
Rapid loading
Small surface area
Bone acts as a brittle material
Shatters rather than deforms
Entrance: small and precise
Exit: large, blown out, fragmented
Sharp force
Relatively slow loading
Small surface area
Beveled edge instrument
Knives:
Narrow, v-shaped cuts
Saws:
Flat or w-shaped kerf: marks made by saw blade; flat or w shaped
Sequence & timing of injuries: tell when multiple injuries occurs; same time-different??
Accident vs. intentional injury
Direction of fire/position of assailant: perpetrator relative to victim
Class of weapon
Timing of trauma
Antemortem: before death; evidence of healing/vital reaction
Perimortem: at or around the time of death
Postmortem: after death; bone fractures like dry material
Personal identification
Linking unknown remains to an individual of known identity
Methods:
DNA (nuclear, not mitochondrial!!)- mitochondrial can be shared, so not a reliable source
Fingerprints
Comparative radiology- xrays or ct scans of someone during life, take scans of unknown person and try and match them up
Surgery or root canal are identifying features that help
12/2/24 Bioarchaeology
What is Bioarchaeology?
The contextual analysis of human remains from archaological sites
Modern people not hominins or otherwise
Similarities with forensic anthropology:
Expertise in human osteology
Some analytical methods in common
E.g. the biological profile
Biological sex
Age at death
Population affinity
Stature (height)
Differences from forensic anthropology:
Historic & prehistoric contexts (non forensically significant)
Emphasis on reconstructing life as opposed to circumstances of death
Typically (but not always) a population approach
Examples of Population-Level approach: Butrint, Albania
Demographic profiles
Analysis of skeletal pathologies
Spatial analysis of burials
Ancient DNA analysis:
Biological relationships
Molecular identification of pathogens
Paleopathologies
Orbital lesions in a young juvenile possibly caused by scurvy (butrint, Albania 6-7th century AD)
Vertebral lesions caused by brucellosis (Butrint, Albania 10-13th century AD)
Bioarchaeologists ask questions related to:
Health & disease
Dietary patterns
Activity patterns
Injury & violence
Biological relationships
Migration
Mortuary behavior
Social identity
G-190: adolescent male with metastatic cancer
Biological profile:
Sex: male (enamel proteomics)
Age at death: 15-19 years (dental formation, epiphyseal union)
Early life stress:
Linear enamel hypoplasias
Oral health problems:
Dental caries & antemortem loss
G-56 Elderly male with antemortem trauma and postmortem examination
Biological profile:
Sex: male (pelvic & cranial morphology)
Age at death: 50+ years (pubic symphysis)
Developmental anomaly:
Cervical rib & Srb’s anomaly
Early life stress:
Orbital lesions
Later adulthood:
Joint disease
Purpose for examination of the brain?
Receiving medical care or institutionalized?
Death under unusual/suspicious circumstances?
Confirm a diagnosis? Effects of cranial trauma?