The Scientific Revolution (1450-1750)

Definition: A critical intellectual and cultural transformation that occurred in Europe.
Time Frame: Mid-1500s to early 1700s.
Sources of Knowledge:
- Emphasis on careful observations.
- Conducting controlled experiments.
- Formulating general laws.
- Applying mathematical expressions.
Shift in Belief Systems:
- Shifted away from reliance on traditional authorities, including:
- The authority of the Bible.
- The teachings of the Church.
- Speculations from ancient philosophers.
- Received cultural wisdom.

Development of Legal Systems:
- In the 12th and 13th centuries, Europeans established a legal system that facilitated a degree of independence for various institutions.
- Key examples of independent institutions:
- The Church.
- Towns and cities.
- Workers’ guilds.
- Professional organizations.
- Universities.
Impact on Universities:
- University independence allowed scholars to pursue studies without interference from the Church or political authorities.
- Notable universities, such as Cambridge University in England, were pivotal in nurturing the major figures associated with the Scientific Revolution.

Focus of Education:
- Colleges/universities concentrated on Quranic studies and religious law rather than secular sciences.
Perception of Science:
- Religious scholars viewed science and philosophy with suspicion due to the belief that the Quran contained all wisdom.
- Concern that scientific inquiry might undermine the Quran.
- Scientific study was often seen as a source of uncertainty and confusion.

Educational Focus:
- Chinese education prioritized preparation for civil service examinations, primarily emphasizing classical Confucian texts.
Restrictions on Independent Learning:
- Chinese authorities imposed restrictions that prevented the establishment of independent learning institutions, limiting scholars' ability to study freely.

Background:
- Polish astronomer trained at the University of Krakow in 1492.
- Recognized as a leading figure in the Scientific Revolution during a time when challenging established beliefs was rare.
Major Contributions:
- Proposed that the Earth is round and rotates around the sun.
- Asserted that, contrary to traditional beliefs, the sun—not the Earth—is at the center of the universe.
- Challenged the notion that the Earth was unique and held a special place in God's creation.

Background:
- German astronomer and mathematician of Protestant faith.
Contributions to Astronomy:
- Utilized mathematical formulas to demonstrate that the planets revolve around the sun.
- Discovered that planets move in elliptical orbits (oval shapes).
- Noted that planets do not travel at a uniform speed, moving faster as they approach the sun.

Background:
- Italian mathematician known for enhancements to the telescope.
Notable Observations:
- Recorded observations of sunspots, lunar mountains, and Jupiter’s moons.
Innovations:
- Created the pendulum clock.
- Published influential works on physics and astronomy in 1636, which were subsequently banned by the Catholic Church due to their contentious nature.
Persecution:
- Faced significant opposition from the Catholic Church, resulting in a house arrest lasting 50 years, during which he made many of his important discoveries.

Background:
- British scientist who was initially a below-average student at Cambridge University.
Theoretical Development:
- During the 1665 plague closure, he returned home and developed his theory of gravity after observing an apple fall from a tree.
- Published his theories about gravity in 1687, explaining that gravity prevents objects from flying off Earth and holds the solar system together.
Contributions to Physics and Mathematics:
- Formulated modern laws of motion and mechanics.
- Developed calculus, which provides a method for calculating changing forces or quantities.
- Proved that mathematics could explain the universe's workings.

Background:
- English philosopher known for advocating empirical investigation.
Contributions to the Scientific Method:
- Proposed a systematic approach to scientific inquiry involving four key steps:
1. Observation - Careful observation of phenomena.
2. Hypothesis - Formulating a hypothesis based on observations.
3. Testing - Conducting tests to verify the hypothesis.
4. Conclusion - Drawing conclusions based on the test results.

Background:
- French philosopher and mathematician recognized for his contributions to rationalism.
Philosophical Contributions:
- Proposed that truth could be obtained through mathematics and logical deduction (reasoning).
- Notable for the invention of analytic geometry.
Famous Quote:
- “I think, therefore I am.”

Background:
- English physician known for his work in understanding human circulation.
Major Discovery:
- Concluded that blood circulates throughout the body, pumped by the heart, and returns through the veins.
- Prior belief held that the liver digested food and processed it into blood.

Background:
- English scientist recognized for his pioneering work in microscopy.
Major Discovery:
- Discovered cells using a new microscope, identifying cells within various vegetable tissues.

Background:
- Irish chemist who played a key role in establishing chemistry as a distinct scientific discipline.
Key Contributions:
- Demonstrated that air is not a basic element.
- Defined an 'element' as a substance that cannot be broken down into simpler parts.
- Challenged alchemical beliefs, specifically the idea that lead could be transformed into gold.

Background:
- English chemist and clergyman known for his experimental work on gases.
Major Contributions:
- Conducted experiments revealing properties of air, discovering the existence of oxygen.
- His investigations into carbon dioxide led to the invention of carbonated beverages, such as soda.