Science EOY Notes

1. Safety, Science, and Equipment

  • Lab Safety Rules

    • Always wear goggles and lab coats.

    • Tie back long hair and secure loose clothing.

    • No eating, drinking, or horseplay in the lab.

    • Report spills and accidents immediately.

  • Common Laboratory Equipment

    • Beakers & Flasks: Used to hold, mix, and heat liquids.

    • Bunsen Burner: Provides a controlled flame for heating substances.

    • Test Tubes & Pipettes: For measuring and transferring small amounts of liquids.

    • Microscopes: For examining tiny specimens at high magnification.

2. Food, Nutrition, and Energy

  • Food Groups

    • Carbohydrates: Primary energy source (e.g., bread, pasta).

    • Proteins: Build and repair tissues (e.g., meat, beans).

    • Fats: Provide energy and insulation (e.g., butter, oils).

    • Vitamins & Minerals: Essential for body functions (found in fruits and vegetables).

    • Dairy: Source of calcium and other nutrients.

  • Balanced Diet

    • Consumes a variety of foods from all food groups.

    • Supplies the body with energy, vitamins, and minerals in the right proportions.

  • Calculating Energy in Foods

    • Measurement Units: Energy is often measured in kilojoules (kJ) in the UK (or calories).

    • Macronutrient Values:

      • Carbohydrates and proteins provide roughly 17 kJ (4 calories) per gram.

      • Fats provide about 37 kJ (9 calories) per gram.

    • Use these values to estimate the energy provided by a given food.

  • Types of Food

    • Can be categorised as natural (fresh fruits, vegetables) or processed (ready meals, packaged snacks).

    • Understanding food types helps in making healthy choices.

3. Biological Structures and Processes

  • Bone Structures

    • Bones give the body structure and protect vital organs.

    • They store minerals like calcium and produce blood cells.

  • Respiration (Aerobic Respiration)

    • Uses oxygen to convert sugars into energy (ATP) in cells.

    • Produces carbon dioxide and water as waste products.

    • Takes place in the mitochondria.

  • Smoking

    • Introduces harmful chemicals (e.g., tar, nicotine) that damage lung tissue and hinder respiration.

    • Can affect overall health by reducing oxygen absorption.

  • Digestion and Related Processes

    • Digestion: The breakdown of food into simpler substances for absorption.

    • Enzymes: Biological catalysts (e.g., amylase) that speed up chemical reactions in digestion.

    • Villi: Tiny finger-like projections in the intestines that increase the surface area for nutrient absorption.

    • Bacteria:

      • Probiotics: Beneficial bacteria that aid digestion.

      • Prebiotics: Non-digestible substances that support the growth of good bacteria.

4. Matter: States, Substances, and Materials

  • States of Matter

    • Solids: Have a fixed shape and volume.

    • Liquids: Have a fixed volume but take the shape of their container.

    • Gases: Have neither fixed shape nor fixed volume.

  • Substances, Mixtures, and Compounds

    • Pure Substances: Have a constant composition (elements or compounds).

    • Compounds: Chemically combined elements (e.g., water = H₂O).

    • Mixtures: Physically combined substances that can be separated (e.g., salad, sandy water).

  • Compound Materials vs. Composite Materials

    • Compound Materials: Are pure substances, where elements are combined in fixed ratios.

    • Composite Materials: Made by combining two or more materials to enhance strength (e.g., fiberglass, where glass fibers are set in a resin).

  • Polymers and Monomers

    • Monomers: Small molecules that serve as the building blocks.

    • Polymers: Long chains of monomers (e.g., plastics).

    • Fiberglass: A type of composite material, combining glass fibers with plastic resin.

5. Atoms, Chemical Reactions, and Equations

  • Atomic Structure and Orbits

    • Atoms consist of a nucleus (protons and neutrons) with electrons orbiting in energy levels.

    • The Bohr model shows electrons in defined orbits around the nucleus.

  • Balanced Equations

    • Chemical equations must have equal numbers of each type of atom on both sides to obey the law of conservation of mass.

  • Chemical Reactions: Exothermic vs. Endothermic

    • Exothermic Reactions: Release energy (heat or light), such as combustion.

    • Endothermic Reactions: Absorb energy from the surroundings.

  • Combustion, Decomposition, and Oxidation

    • Combustion: A rapid form of oxidation producing heat and light.

    • Decomposition: The breakdown of compounds into simpler substances.

    • Oxidation Reactions: Involve the loss of electrons (e.g., rusting of iron).

6. Materials and Energy Sources

  • Metals and Non-Metals

    • Metals: Typically shiny, good conductors of heat and electricity, malleable and ductile.

    • Non-Metals: Diverse in appearance, often poor conductors, and can be solids (like sulfur), liquids, or gases.

  • Alloys

    • Mixtures of metals (or metals with other elements) that have properties different from their components (e.g., steel, brass).

  • Non-Renewable vs. Renewable Energy

    • Non-Renewable: Energy sources that cannot be replenished in a short time (e.g., oil, coal, gas).

    • Renewable: Energy sources that are naturally replenished (e.g., solar, wind, tidal).

  • Upthrust (Buoyant Force)

    • The upward force exerted by a fluid that opposes the weight of an object immersed in it.

    • Determined by the volume of the object and the density of the fluid.

  • Rust

    • The product of the oxidation of iron, forming iron oxide.

    • Occurs in the presence of water and oxygen.

7. Motion, Forces, and Mechanics

  • Basics of Force and Newtons

    • Force: A push or pull acting on an object, measured in newtons (N).

    • Newton’s laws describe how forces cause changes in motion.

  • Speed, Distance, and Time Graphs

    • Speed: Calculated as distance divided by time (Speed = Distance/Time).

    • Graphs help visualize how speed changes with time.

  • Drag, Air Resistance, and Friction

    • Drag: The resistive force air or fluid exerts on a moving object.

    • Air Resistance: A specific type of drag encountered in the atmosphere.

    • Friction: The resistance between two surfaces in contact.

  • Contact vs. Non-Contact Forces

    • Contact Forces: Involve physical contact (e.g., friction, tension).

    • Non-Contact Forces: Act at a distance (e.g., gravity, magnetic forces).

  • Muscles, Antagonistic Pairs, and Human Movement

    • Muscle Pairs: For every movement, an agonist (contracting muscle) is balanced by an antagonist (relaxing muscle).

    • Examples include the biceps (flexors) and triceps (extensors) around the arm.

  • Acceleration and Deceleration

    • Acceleration: The rate of change of velocity (speeding up).

    • Deceleration: The rate of slowing down.

    • Graphs of velocity versus time illustrate these changes.

  • Unbalanced vs. Balanced Forces

    • Unbalanced Forces: Cause changes in the state of motion (acceleration).

    • Balanced Forces: Cancel each other out, resulting in no change in motion.

  • Hooke's Law

    • Describes the behavior of springs: Force (F) is proportional to the displacement (x), following the formula F = kx, where k is the spring constant.

8. Acids, Bases, and pH

  • Acids and Alkalis (Bases)

    • Acids: Substances that donate hydrogen ions (H⁺) and have a pH less than 7 (e.g., lemon juice).

    • Alkalis (Bases): Substances that donate hydroxide ions (OH⁻) and have a pH greater than 7 (e.g., baking soda solution).

  • pH Scale

    • Ranges from 0 (highly acidic) to 14 (highly alkaline); 7 is neutral.

  • Neutralisation Reactions

    • Occur when an acid reacts with a base to form a salt and water, moving the pH closer to neutral.

9. Sound and Light

  • Sound, Vacuums, and the Ear

    • Sound: Vibrations that travel through a medium (gas, liquid, or solid); cannot travel through a vacuum.

    • Ear Structure: Consists of the outer ear (collects sound), middle ear (ossicles transmit vibrations), and inner ear (converts them to nerve impulses).

  • Echoes, Echolocation, and Ultrasound

    • Echoes: Reflected sound waves that return to the source, sometimes used to determine distance.

    • Echolocation: A technique used by animals (like bats) to navigate by interpreting echoes.

    • Ultrasound: High-frequency sound waves used in medical imaging.

  • Light: Luminescence and Optical Phenomena

    • Luminescent Materials: Emit light after absorbing energy (e.g., glow sticks).

    • Non-Luminescent Materials: Reflect or absorb light without emitting it.

    • Ray Diagrams: Visual tools to trace the path of light through systems.

    • Shadows: Form when an opaque object blocks light.

    • Reflection: The bouncing back of light from a surface.

    • Refraction: The bending of light as it passes from one medium to another (e.g., air to water).

    • Colours: Determined by the wavelength of light; the human eye perceives different wavelengths as different colours.

  • The Human Eye

    • Key Parts:

      • Cornea: The clear front layer that helps focus light.

      • Iris and Pupil: Control the amount of light entering the eye.

      • Lens: Focuses light onto the retina.

      • Retina: Contains light-sensitive cells that convert light into nerve signals.

These notes are designed to be bite-sized and modular, which will make it easier to transform each bullet point into individual flashcards in Knowt. For example, a flashcard might feature:

  • Front: "What are the three states of matter and their key characteristics?"

  • Back: "Solids – fixed shape and volume; Liquids – fixed volume, take the shape of their container; Gases – no fixed shape or volume."

Or another:

  • Front: "Explain Hooke's Law."

  • Back: "Hooke’s Law states that the force required to extend or compress a spring is proportional to the distance moved (F = kx), where k is the spring constant."