Exam Notes

Colonial Trade

  • Colonial trade stimulated the economy but relied on slavery, which devastated Africa.
  • Competition between France and England led to conflicts.

British in India

  • British East India Company gradually gained control, later taken over by the English government after the Sepoy mutiny.
  • Landlords were turned into nobility to create loyalty.
  • An Indian bureaucracy was educated in British ways.
  • Colonies stimulated the economy but peasants and slaves did not benefit.

The Enlightenment

  • Intellectuals (philosophes) questioned traditions and viewed the universe scientifically.
  • European society was subjected to criticism and analysis.

Beliefs of the Philosophes:

  1. Reason: Universe explained through reason, applicable to human institutions.
  2. Skepticism: Everything open to questioning, disliked dogma and superstition.
  3. Toleration: Religious and intellectual, all ideas equally valid.
  4. Freedom: Intellectual, free speech, press, and religion.
  5. Equality: All people are equal.
  6. Education: Leads to a perfect society.
  7. Optimism: Science brings progress.
  8. Enlightened Despotism: Rulers as servants of the state.

Famous Philosophes:

  • Voltaire: Advocated science, intellectual and religious freedom, satirical writer.
  • Diderot: Encyclopedia to "change the general way of thinking," core was science.
  • Montesquieu: Advocated checks and balances in government.
  • Kant: Reality and perception are different but science is valid with concepts like cause and effect.
  • Beccaria: Argued for human rights and humanitarianism.

Elite Culture of the Enlightenment:

  • Cosmopolitan world united by French language.
  • Cities improved with amenities like streetlights and coffeehouses.

Revolutions of 1848 & Nationalism

Revolutions of 1848

  • Liberal revolutions failed due to divided revolutionaries and the governments' will to survive.

Revolution in France

  • Started due to suffrage issues; government banned banquets, sparking rebellion.
  • Louis Philippe abdicated; France declared a republic led by Lamartine.
  • Universal male suffrage granted; right to work established.
  • Moderate republicans won; workers dissatisfied, leading to June Days uprising.
  • June Days: Workers crushed by republic's troops.
Split Between Revolutionary Groups:
  1. Middle class: Moderate goals, representative government.
  2. Working class: Radical goals, socialism, total equality.
  • Louis Napoleon Bonaparte won election, later became emperor; revolution failed.

Revolution in Austria

  • Hungarians established free press, national guard, abolished feudal obligations.
  • Vienna demanded representative government; Metternich resigned.
  • Hungarian autonomy caused demands from Czechs, Croatians, Romanians.
  • Hapsburgs suppressed revolutions.

Revolution in Prussia

  • Frederick William IV granted concessions, but fighting broke out.
  • Revolution seemed to win but constitution was conservative.

Europe from 1815 to 1848

Definition of Romanticism

  • Attitude towards life, counterpoint to Enlightenment ideals.
  • Could coexist with nationalism or socialism; also an artistic movement.

Romanticism vs. Liberalism

  • Romanticism idealized countryside, liberalism thrived in cities.
  • Romanticism emphasized emotion, liberalism emphasized reason.
  • Romanticism stressed intuition, liberalism stressed scholarship.
  • Romanticism viewed nature as untamable, liberalism felt nature could be controlled.
  • Romanticism stressed individual uniqueness, liberalism stressed universal human laws.
  • Romanticism idealized the Middle Ages, liberalism despised it.

Romantic Art and Music

  • Art: Emphasized color, nature, emotion, movement.
  • Music: Became more passionate (Beethoven, Mozart, Hayden).

Political Ideologies

  • Conservatism: Defended tradition and hierarchy.
  • Liberalism: Social progress, economic development, individual rights (John Stuart Mill).
  • Economic Liberalism: Laissez-faire (David Ricardo, iron law of wages).
  • Utilitarianism: Stressed the role of the state in society.
  • Socialism: Advocated a harmonious and free society.

The Spread of Liberal Government

  • England as a model for liberal nations.
  • 1832 Reform Bill: Extended franchise and redistricted.
  • Factory Act, Poor Law passed.
  • Radicals (Charterists) wanted universal male suffrage but failed.

French Revolution

Origins of the Revolution

  • Enlightenment ideology questioned beliefs and advocated for freedom.
  • Scandals made aristocracy appear ridiculous.
  • Corrupt government; Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette were unpopular.
  • Long-term economic difficulties.

Prelude to the Revolution (1774-1789)

  • Turgot's reforms failed; Necker took out loans.
  • Monarchy on verge of bankruptcy.
  • Louis recalled Parlements and Necker, convened Estates General (EG) in 1789.

The Estates General Meet

  • Liberal ideology took shape; Third Estate asked to be doubled in size.
  • Voting method became an issue; Third Estate wanted voting by head.
  • Citizens wrote grievance petitions (cahiers).

The National Assembly (1789-1791)

  • May 5th, 1789: EG met; king didn't clear up voting mess.
  • June 17th, 1789: Third Estate proclaimed itself the National Assembly.
  • Tennis Court Oath: Swore to create a constitution.
  • King promised equality in taxation but ordered estates to meet separately.
  • July 14th, 1789: Crowds attacked the Bastille.
  • August 4th, 1789: Feudalism was abolished.
  • August 26th, 1789: Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen.
  • Civil Constitution of the Clergy: Clergy became state employees; divided opinions.
  • Constitution of 1791: Limited monarchy, unicameral legislature.

The Legislative Assembly (1791-1792)

  • No NA members could be in the LA.
  • King's unsuccessful Flight to Varennes.
  • LA declared war on Austria and Prussia.
  • August 10th, 1792: Royal palace stormed, king suspended.

The Radical Phase (1792-1794)

  • Paris Commune created; September Massacres occurred.
  • France declared a Republic; National Convention met.
  • January 21st, 1793: Louis XVI guillotined.
  • Committee for Public Safety (Robespierre, Danton, Hébert) instituted Reign of Terror.

Thermidorian Reaction (1794-1795) and The Directory (1795-1799)

  • Revolutionary committees destroyed; Jacobin Club closed.
  • Anti-Jacobin sentiment grew; White Terror erupted.
  • Directory established, but was corrupt and overthrown by Napoleon.

Elite and Popular Culture During Enlightenment

Elite Culture

  • Republic of letters developed with journals and newspapers.
  • Salons and academies spread ideas.
  • Publishing increased; new employment opportunities.

Art, Literature, and Music

  • Art: Rococo (bright, swirling colors) vs. Neoclassicism (drama, emotion).
  • Music: Symphony developed (Beethoven, Mozart, Hayden).

Popular Culture

  • Literacy low, education scarce in rural areas.
  • Festivals, taverns, sports were important.