Pre-Historic India: Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic Ages

Foundations of Pre-Historic Indian Archaeology

The history and identity of human settlements in India are rooted in pre-historic times, a period defined by the absence of a development of script. Consequently, our understanding of this era is based entirely on materials recovered through archaeological excavations. The scholarly foundation for the extensive study of Indian pre-history was laid by Robert Bruce Foote, who is credited with discovering what was likely the first Palaeolithic tool in India, known as the Pallavaram handaxe. Following this discovery, Foote identified numerous other pre-historic sites throughout southern India. Another pivotal figure in this field is Sir Mortimer Wheeler, whose systematic efforts significantly advanced the knowledge of pre-historical cultures in India and established their chronological sequence.

Classification and Chronology of the Indian Stone Age

This early phase of human development is generally referred to as the Stone Age because the earliest inhabitants utilized stone tools and implements found in their environment for hunting and gathering food. The Indian Stone Age is classified into three primary phases based on the geological age, the specific technology and type of stone tools used, and the subsistence base of the population. A general time range is established for these periods, though variations exist across different archaeological sites:

1. Old Stone Age or Palaeolithic Age, spanning from $5,00,000$ to $10,000\,BCE$.

2. Late Stone Age or Mesolithic Age, spanning from $10,000$ to $6,000\,BCE$.

3. New Stone Age or Neolithic Age, spanning from $6,000$ to $1,000\,BCE$.

The Palaeolithic Age: Hunters and Food Gatherers

The Palaeolithic Age, derived from the Greek words 'palaeo' (old) and 'lithic' (stone), coincides with the Pleistocene period, also known as the Ice Age. During this geological epoch, much of the Earth's surface was covered in ice, and temperatures were often too cold for human or plant life to survive, except in tropical regions where ice melted and early human species could exist. In India, Palaeolithic settlements were spread across almost all regions except for the alluvial plains of the Indus and Ganga rivers, southern Tamil Nadu, and the hilly regions of the Western Ghats.

The prehistoric humans of this era belonged to the species Homo erectus. Within the broader context of human evolution, this species follows Australopithecus afarensis and Homo habilis, and precedes Homo neanderthalensis and Homo sapiens. These early humans did not possess a complex language culture, likely communicating through a limited range of sounds or words and sign language. In India, Palaeolithic men are associated with the Negrito race and resided in various environments including open-air sites, river valleys, caves, and rock shelters.

Life and Characteristics of Palaeolithic Humans

The Palaeolithic people were essentially food gatherers who subsisted on hunting wild animals and collecting wild fruits and vegetables. During most of this period, they lacked knowledge of agriculture, house construction, pottery, or metalworking. The discovery and use of fire only occurred in the later stages of the Palaeolithic. Because their tools were primarily made of a hard rock known as quartzite, these early inhabitants are often referred to as 'Quartzite men' in the Indian context. Their toolkits consisted of unpolished, undressed, and rough stone implements, including hand axes, cleavers, choppers, blades, burins, and scrapers.

Sub-divisions of the Palaeolithic Age

The Palaeolithic Age in India is further divided into three distinct phases based on the nature of the stone tools employed:

1. Early or Lower Palaeolithic ($5,00,000\,BCE$ to $50,000\,BCE$): This phase covered the greater part of the Ice Age. Tools were rough and heavy, primarily consisting of hand axes, choppers, and cleavers used for chopping, digging, and skinning. Key sites include the Soan and Sohan river valleys (Pakistan), Kashmir, the Thar Desert (Didwana, Rajasthan), Hiran Valley (Gujarat), the rock shelters of Bhimbetka (Madhya Pradesh), and the Belan Valley in Mirzapur (Uttar Pradesh).

2. Middle Palaeolithic ($3,85,000\,BCE$ to $40,000\,BCE$): This period was formally established in $1960$ by H.D. Sankalia and is sometimes called the Nevasan industry after the site of Nevasa in Maharashtra. The toolkit shifted toward tools made of flakes, such as scrapers, borers, points, and blade-like tools. These tools were generally smaller, and there was a marked decrease in the use of hand axes. Important sites include the Soan, Narmada, and Tungabhadra river valleys, the Potwar plateau (between the Indus and Jhelum), and Sanghao Cave near Peshawar.

3. Late or Upper Palaeolithic ($40,000\,BCE$ to $10,000\,BCE$): This phase saw significant innovations in technology, featuring parallel-sided blades, burins, and the first instances of bone tools. Homo sapiens appeared at the end of this phase, indicating an increase in cognitive capability. This period coincided with the last phase of the Ice Age, characterized by a warmer and less humid climate. Sites are found in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Central Madhya Pradesh, Southern Uttar Pradesh, and the Chhotanagpur Plateau. Notable finds include bone tools at Kurnool and Muchchatla Chintamani Gavi (Andhra Pradesh) and incised ostrich eggshells and beads at Patna (Maharashtra).

The Mesolithic Age: Hunters and Herders

The Mesolithic Age (Middle Stone Age) represents an intermediate stage between the Palaeolithic and Neolithic cultures. It belongs to the Holocene era, which followed the Pleistocene about $10,000$ years ago, bringing global warming, melting ice, and changes in flora and fauna. These climatic changes allowed human groups to become highly mobile and occupy various eco-zones. The defining characteristic of this age was the use of microliths—miniature stone tools typically made of crypto-crystalline silica, chalcedony, or chert. These tools, appearing in both geometrical and non-geometrical shapes, were often hafted onto wooden or bone handles to create composite tools like spearheads, arrowheads, and sickles. Microliths enabled the hunting of smaller animals and birds.

Mesolithic Way of Life and Social Development

Mesolithic populations lived in semi-permanent and temporary settlements, occupying both caves and open grounds. While they continued to survive through hunting, fishing, and food gathering, later stages of the culture saw the domestication of animals and the cultivation of plants, transitionary steps toward the Neolithic lifestyle. These people utilized fire and likely roasted their food. Elaborate burial practices, sometimes including grave goods, suggest a nascent belief in life after death. Additionally, the Mesolithic era marked the beginning of rock art in India. The first rock paintings were discovered by A.C.L. Carlleyle in $1867$ at Sohagighat in the Kaimur Hills (Uttar Pradesh). Since then, over $150$ Mesolithic rock art sites have been identified, with major concentrations in Central India, such as Bhimbetka, Kharwar, Jaora, and Kathotia in Madhya Pradesh, as well as sites in Orissa (Sundargarh, Sambalpur) and Kerala (Ezhuthu Guha).

Artistic and Cultural Expressions in Mesolithic Rock Art

Rock art, particularly at sites like the Bhimbetka caves, provides deep insight into Mesolithic life. The paintings often depict scenes of hunting, fishing, dancing, family life, and burials, as well as the collection of honey and plant foods. Animals such as bison, buffalo, tigers, elephants, rhinoceroses, deer, and Nilgai are commonly featured, though snakes are notably absent. While birds are depicted, perching birds that feed on grain only appear in later periods. The weapons shown include bows and arrows, pointed sticks, and barbed spears. Most paintings use a stick-line fashion with red and white colors derived from minerals or plants. These artworks also suggest early religious practices and a division of labor based on gender, with both men and women participating in hunting.

Significant Mesolithic Archaeological Sites

Several sites are critical to our understanding of the Mesolithic period in India:

1. Bagor (Rajasthan): Located on the River Kothari, it is one of the largest and most well-documented Mesolithic sites.

2. Adamgarh (Madhya Pradesh): This site provides the earliest archaeological evidence for the domestication of animals.

3. Mahadaha (Uttar Pradesh): Notable for findings of bone artifacts, including arrowheads and ornaments, as well as a burial containing both a man and a woman.

4. Langhnaj (Gujarat) and Kaimur (Mirzapur, Uttar Pradesh): These are rare Mesolithic sites where pottery is present, whereas it is absent in most other sites of this era.

5. Other prominent regions include the Chhotanagpur Region, Central India, areas south of the River Krishna (such as Tinnevelly in Tamil Nadu), Birbhanpur in West Bengal, and Sarai Nahar Rai near Allahabad.

The Neolithic Age: The Food-Producing Revolution

The Neolithic Age (New Stone Age) emerged in northern India around $8,000-6,000\,BCE$, though in some parts of southern and eastern India, it appeared as late as $1,000\,BCE$. V. Gordon Childe famously termed this phase the 'Neolithic Revolution' due to the radical shifts it introduced in socio-economic life. The most significant innovation was the transition from food gathering to food producing through the beginning of agriculture and widespread animal domestication. Neolithic humans cultivated crops such as ragi and horse gram (kulathi) and domesticated cattle, sheep, and goats, leading to the rise of settled agricultural communities.

Technological Developments in the Neolithic Era

The Neolithic period saw advancements in tool production, characterized by polished, pecked, and ground stone implements. Unlike the Palaeolithic 'Quartzite men,' Neolithic people used various types of stones to create sharp, efficient tools. A key development was the 'celt,' a tool with a handle that greatly increased efficiency for task such as tilling soil. Furthermore, the necessity of storing surplus food led to the invention of pottery. Initially made by hand, pottery was later produced using the potter's wheel. Common styles included black burnished ware, grey ware, and mat-impressed ware. These technological strides directly facilitated the establishment of permanent settlements and structured human societies.